but at lesser degree as they can accumulate more chlorogenic acid at lower elevations. So F1 hybrids are insignificantly affected by elevation. Additionally, TVs have
high vigor and vegetative growth at high altitudes resulted in an increase in leaf to
fruit ratio which in turn resulted in enormous supply of carbohydrates to berries with
less nutrition competition. So this better supply of carbohydrates coupled with
delayed berry ripening at higher elevations due to low temperature stems out as
better cup quality conclusively. This issue was addressed by Bertrand et al. [91] by
increasing the heterosis and homeostasis in F1 hybrids which give high vigor and
leave to fruit ratio to F1 hybrids too which help in eliminating the variation of fat
contents and consequently in the cup quality of these hybrid varieties. A nearinfrared reflectance (NIR) spectrum of TVs is more modified by the elevation than
new F1 hybrids which is confirmation of this work on F1 hybrids and can be used for
identification and authentication of coffee varieties. Further, organoleptic properties
do not differ at high altitude among all coffee varieties and with some exception F1
hybrids are equivalent to TVs. But at lowers altitudes F1-T/A and F1-H/A are
considered superior than TVs [38]. As new varieties of coffee are being introduced,
so genetic consistency should be maintained among the new and old varieties
because genetic consistency is considered very important for the quality assurance
of agricultural products [92]. Since 1950s most of the breeding and genetic improvement programs around the coffee producing countries mainly focused on generating
high yielding and insect-, pest-, and disease-resistant varieties with rare focus on
quality attributes. Breeders and geneticists started to focus the quality attributes of
coffee varieties from 1980s with production of introgression lines. Literature is also
full of conflicts over the quality equivalence of introgressed and nonintrogressed
lines, while the reported efforts of exploiting heterosis and homeostasis are hopes for
creating quality balance among the F1 hybrids [38, 59, 88].
2.3
Seeds and Seedlings Characterization for Cultivation
Vegetative propagation methods are mostly used for self-incompatible C. robusta,
while true breeding C. arabica is propagated by means of seeds with a least fraction
by microvegetative propagation [93]. As most of the coffee seeds’ presowing
handling, treatment, and storage studies focus only on seeds from C. arabica so
this section will only address the seeds from Arabica coffee plants unless specified.
Healthy seedlings are the guarantee of healthy plant and coffee cherries with
desirable characteristics. The production of healthy seedlings solely relies on the
vigor, viability, and germination of seeds. Several presowing management and
storage studies have been conducted to ensure the preservation of vigor, viability,
and germination of seeds. The quality of presowing seeds is generally measured in
terms of germination percentage, percentage of seedling emergence (%E), and
seedlings attained first true leaves (%FTL) [94]. Storage time, storage temperature,
moisture contents, time of harvesting of seeds (intended for sowing), fruit maturity,
and size are the important factors which considered crucial for selection or
harvesting of seeds intended for sowing. Selection of right kind of seeds with
658
A. Hameed et al.
high vigor and vegetative growth at high altitudes resulted in an increase in leaf to
fruit ratio which in turn resulted in enormous supply of carbohydrates to berries with
less nutrition competition. So this better supply of carbohydrates coupled with
delayed berry ripening at higher elevations due to low temperature stems out as
better cup quality conclusively. This issue was addressed by Bertrand et al. [91] by
increasing the heterosis and homeostasis in F1 hybrids which give high vigor and
leave to fruit ratio to F1 hybrids too which help in eliminating the variation of fat
contents and consequently in the cup quality of these hybrid varieties. A nearinfrared reflectance (NIR) spectrum of TVs is more modified by the elevation than
new F1 hybrids which is confirmation of this work on F1 hybrids and can be used for
identification and authentication of coffee varieties. Further, organoleptic properties
do not differ at high altitude among all coffee varieties and with some exception F1
hybrids are equivalent to TVs. But at lowers altitudes F1-T/A and F1-H/A are
considered superior than TVs [38]. As new varieties of coffee are being introduced,
so genetic consistency should be maintained among the new and old varieties
because genetic consistency is considered very important for the quality assurance
of agricultural products [92]. Since 1950s most of the breeding and genetic improvement programs around the coffee producing countries mainly focused on generating
high yielding and insect-, pest-, and disease-resistant varieties with rare focus on
quality attributes. Breeders and geneticists started to focus the quality attributes of
coffee varieties from 1980s with production of introgression lines. Literature is also
full of conflicts over the quality equivalence of introgressed and nonintrogressed
lines, while the reported efforts of exploiting heterosis and homeostasis are hopes for
creating quality balance among the F1 hybrids [38, 59, 88].
2.3
Seeds and Seedlings Characterization for Cultivation
Vegetative propagation methods are mostly used for self-incompatible C. robusta,
while true breeding C. arabica is propagated by means of seeds with a least fraction
by microvegetative propagation [93]. As most of the coffee seeds’ presowing
handling, treatment, and storage studies focus only on seeds from C. arabica so
this section will only address the seeds from Arabica coffee plants unless specified.
Healthy seedlings are the guarantee of healthy plant and coffee cherries with
desirable characteristics. The production of healthy seedlings solely relies on the
vigor, viability, and germination of seeds. Several presowing management and
storage studies have been conducted to ensure the preservation of vigor, viability,
and germination of seeds. The quality of presowing seeds is generally measured in
terms of germination percentage, percentage of seedling emergence (%E), and
seedlings attained first true leaves (%FTL) [94]. Storage time, storage temperature,
moisture contents, time of harvesting of seeds (intended for sowing), fruit maturity,
and size are the important factors which considered crucial for selection or
harvesting of seeds intended for sowing. Selection of right kind of seeds with
658
A. Hameed et al.