coffee Arabica, whereas lowland to mid-altitude regions (less than 900 mm) are the
harbors of coffee Robusta. It is a common saying in coffee business that “Altitude
determines the Attitude,” attitudes of traders, buyers, investors, and at last consumers. The primary criteria for the selection of piece of land for cultivation of
coffee are related to its altitude, latitude, slope steepness, and slope exposure towards
sunlight. This primary criterion actually also defines the secondary criterion (i.e.,
environmental factors, fertilization, irrigation, sun and shade ecosystems, local
technologies, and quality of harvesting strategies) which is also major concern for
selection of a suitable piece of land for coffee growing and subsequent harvesting.
Many authors categorically established the relationship between these primary
factors (i.e., altitude, latitudes, steepness of slope, slope exposure) with quality of
coffee cup and referred the effect of these primary factors as “Terrain effect” [19].
The cup quality or organoleptic characteristics of coffee are function of wellbalanced combination of its volatile and nonvolatile components de novo synthesized from different pathways as a result of enzymatic reactions [20]. And these
primary geographical factors (i.e., latitude, altitude, steepness of lope, slope exposure) affect the composition of these components or enzymatic actions on these
components which result in the worldwide variation in coffee flavor, taste, aroma,
and other sensory and organoleptic attributes [20–22]. Table 1 represents a relationship of the nonvolatile components of coffee beans with altitude which are also the
prime source of almost 1000 kind of volatile compounds generated during the
roasting and brewing of coffee bean grinds. Some of these components act positively
(e.g., glucose, chlorogenic acid, trigonelline, caffeine, organic acids, fat) on the
overall quality parameters, but some of the components are the source of declining
the quality of coffee such phenolic compounds [23] and 5-caffeoylquinic acid (5CQA) by causing unwanted degree of bitterness or astringency [24, 25]. Glucose,
trigonelline, and chlorogenic acid are also believed to be precursors of volatile
compounds which impart the aroma of coffee, and chlorogenic acid is also reported
to employ a protecting action against microorganisms during maturation and
harvesting while the moisture in air is high [26, 27]. However, some contradictory
results also cited in literature stating trigonelline and sucrose having negative
association with cup quality [28]. The lack of consensus among the works of Leonel
and Philippe [28] and other authors (discussed below) is probably due to fact that
studies of Leonel and Philippe [28] are carried out at lower altitudes (690–1293 m),
while studies of all other mentioned authors were carried out at higher altitudes with
different slope exposures, steepness of slope, and latitude. Some authors also
claimed the sucrose in beans in a direct relationship with acidity of coffee beverage
[8, 29]. Avelino et al. [30] reported a significant relationship between the altitude and
quality of coffee beverage. He also found a considerable difference in the net
contents of fat, sucrose, caffeine, trigonelline, and chlorogenic acid contents while
comparing the cherries (Arabica) from two different altitudes of same mountaineer
slope. Caffeine, trigonelline, and chlorogenic acid contents were reportedly found
higher in the coffee beans from higher altitude, whereas sucrose contents were found
surplus in coffee beans from the lower altitudes [30, 31]. In another report, working
on the different altitudes in Honduras and Costa Rica, a positive relationship of
646
A. Hameed et al.
harbors of coffee Robusta. It is a common saying in coffee business that “Altitude
determines the Attitude,” attitudes of traders, buyers, investors, and at last consumers. The primary criteria for the selection of piece of land for cultivation of
coffee are related to its altitude, latitude, slope steepness, and slope exposure towards
sunlight. This primary criterion actually also defines the secondary criterion (i.e.,
environmental factors, fertilization, irrigation, sun and shade ecosystems, local
technologies, and quality of harvesting strategies) which is also major concern for
selection of a suitable piece of land for coffee growing and subsequent harvesting.
Many authors categorically established the relationship between these primary
factors (i.e., altitude, latitudes, steepness of slope, slope exposure) with quality of
coffee cup and referred the effect of these primary factors as “Terrain effect” [19].
The cup quality or organoleptic characteristics of coffee are function of wellbalanced combination of its volatile and nonvolatile components de novo synthesized from different pathways as a result of enzymatic reactions [20]. And these
primary geographical factors (i.e., latitude, altitude, steepness of lope, slope exposure) affect the composition of these components or enzymatic actions on these
components which result in the worldwide variation in coffee flavor, taste, aroma,
and other sensory and organoleptic attributes [20–22]. Table 1 represents a relationship of the nonvolatile components of coffee beans with altitude which are also the
prime source of almost 1000 kind of volatile compounds generated during the
roasting and brewing of coffee bean grinds. Some of these components act positively
(e.g., glucose, chlorogenic acid, trigonelline, caffeine, organic acids, fat) on the
overall quality parameters, but some of the components are the source of declining
the quality of coffee such phenolic compounds [23] and 5-caffeoylquinic acid (5CQA) by causing unwanted degree of bitterness or astringency [24, 25]. Glucose,
trigonelline, and chlorogenic acid are also believed to be precursors of volatile
compounds which impart the aroma of coffee, and chlorogenic acid is also reported
to employ a protecting action against microorganisms during maturation and
harvesting while the moisture in air is high [26, 27]. However, some contradictory
results also cited in literature stating trigonelline and sucrose having negative
association with cup quality [28]. The lack of consensus among the works of Leonel
and Philippe [28] and other authors (discussed below) is probably due to fact that
studies of Leonel and Philippe [28] are carried out at lower altitudes (690–1293 m),
while studies of all other mentioned authors were carried out at higher altitudes with
different slope exposures, steepness of slope, and latitude. Some authors also
claimed the sucrose in beans in a direct relationship with acidity of coffee beverage
[8, 29]. Avelino et al. [30] reported a significant relationship between the altitude and
quality of coffee beverage. He also found a considerable difference in the net
contents of fat, sucrose, caffeine, trigonelline, and chlorogenic acid contents while
comparing the cherries (Arabica) from two different altitudes of same mountaineer
slope. Caffeine, trigonelline, and chlorogenic acid contents were reportedly found
higher in the coffee beans from higher altitude, whereas sucrose contents were found
surplus in coffee beans from the lower altitudes [30, 31]. In another report, working
on the different altitudes in Honduras and Costa Rica, a positive relationship of
646
A. Hameed et al.