legislative frameworks, which can in turn represent an important driving force in its
adoption.
In 2006, the World Health Organization (WHO) released the guidelines for the
safe use of wastewater in order to improve its use in agriculture and provide clear
guidance for local decision-makers. The purpose of the WHO’s guidelines was to
support the definition of specific government regulations related to wastewater use
and management, in consideration of each country governance [1].
In 2012, based on global data, the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (US-EPA) completed the “Guidelines for Wastewater Reuse” that includes
an updated overview of water reuse regulations adopted in the USA, current
advancements in wastewater treatment technology, international water reuse practices, and other factors supporting the safe and sustainable expansion of wastewater
reuse.
The treated wastewater reuse guidelines mentioned above (WHO, FAO, and
US-EPA) constitute the basis for the formulation of local regulations in other
countries [2].
In the European Union (EU), there currently are no guidelines for wastewater
reuse, but according to UE Directives (91/271/EEC, 2000/60/EC) and other international guidelines, several Member States have produced legislative regulations for
water reuse applications. Standards differ among and within the Member States, in
response to different socio-economic conditions at the regional and local levels.
The Spanish legislation (RD 1620/2007 – The legal framework for the reuse of
treated wastewater) includes the following different uses of reclaimed water: urban,
agricultural, industrial, recreational and environmental. As for the Portuguese guidelines (NP 4434 2005 – Reuse of reclaimed urban water for irrigation), they only
refer to urban areas irrigation, and the main applications are for agricultural and
landscape purpose (e.g. golf courses irrigation).
The French standards on wastewater reuse (JORF no. 0153, 4 July 2014) define
water reuse for the irrigation of agricultural lands and green areas and exclude
industrial and urban uses and aquifer recharging, while Cypriot regulation (Law
106 (l) 2002 – Water and Soil pollution control and associated regulations) does not
allow any industrial or urban use of reclaimed water (Water Reuse in Europe,
UE 2014).
The Cyprus, Greece and Spain wastewater guidelines include also aquifer
recharging with reclaimed water by percolation or direct injection, with the aim to
reduce the depletion of groundwater and to mitigate the impacts of saline intrusion in
coastal zones.
In Italy, the agricultural reuse of municipal and agro-industrial reclaimed wastewater is regulated by Legislative Decree no. 152/2006 of the Ministry for the
Environment, which presents restrictive limits for microbiological parameters
(e.g. Escherichia coli) [6, 7], but does not define different limits according to the
risk associated with different destinations for reuse (e.g. irrigation of food or no-food
crops).
To maximise the benefits and minimise the risks related to the use of treated
wastewater, uniform legislative frameworks should be adopted [3]. To this regard, a
Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture: Effects on Soil-Plant System Properties
81
adoption.
In 2006, the World Health Organization (WHO) released the guidelines for the
safe use of wastewater in order to improve its use in agriculture and provide clear
guidance for local decision-makers. The purpose of the WHO’s guidelines was to
support the definition of specific government regulations related to wastewater use
and management, in consideration of each country governance [1].
In 2012, based on global data, the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (US-EPA) completed the “Guidelines for Wastewater Reuse” that includes
an updated overview of water reuse regulations adopted in the USA, current
advancements in wastewater treatment technology, international water reuse practices, and other factors supporting the safe and sustainable expansion of wastewater
reuse.
The treated wastewater reuse guidelines mentioned above (WHO, FAO, and
US-EPA) constitute the basis for the formulation of local regulations in other
countries [2].
In the European Union (EU), there currently are no guidelines for wastewater
reuse, but according to UE Directives (91/271/EEC, 2000/60/EC) and other international guidelines, several Member States have produced legislative regulations for
water reuse applications. Standards differ among and within the Member States, in
response to different socio-economic conditions at the regional and local levels.
The Spanish legislation (RD 1620/2007 – The legal framework for the reuse of
treated wastewater) includes the following different uses of reclaimed water: urban,
agricultural, industrial, recreational and environmental. As for the Portuguese guidelines (NP 4434 2005 – Reuse of reclaimed urban water for irrigation), they only
refer to urban areas irrigation, and the main applications are for agricultural and
landscape purpose (e.g. golf courses irrigation).
The French standards on wastewater reuse (JORF no. 0153, 4 July 2014) define
water reuse for the irrigation of agricultural lands and green areas and exclude
industrial and urban uses and aquifer recharging, while Cypriot regulation (Law
106 (l) 2002 – Water and Soil pollution control and associated regulations) does not
allow any industrial or urban use of reclaimed water (Water Reuse in Europe,
UE 2014).
The Cyprus, Greece and Spain wastewater guidelines include also aquifer
recharging with reclaimed water by percolation or direct injection, with the aim to
reduce the depletion of groundwater and to mitigate the impacts of saline intrusion in
coastal zones.
In Italy, the agricultural reuse of municipal and agro-industrial reclaimed wastewater is regulated by Legislative Decree no. 152/2006 of the Ministry for the
Environment, which presents restrictive limits for microbiological parameters
(e.g. Escherichia coli) [6, 7], but does not define different limits according to the
risk associated with different destinations for reuse (e.g. irrigation of food or no-food
crops).
To maximise the benefits and minimise the risks related to the use of treated
wastewater, uniform legislative frameworks should be adopted [3]. To this regard, a
Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture: Effects on Soil-Plant System Properties
81