7 Analysis of Pharmaceuticals in Earthworms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
7.1 Sampling, Sample Preparation, and Extraction . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 471
8 Separation and Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Abstract Pharmaceuticals have been becoming a major concern of environmental
pollution since the beginning of the century. The ways in which these contaminants
are introduced into the environment are very different, but almost always associated
with wastewater. In fact, current wastewater treatment plants are not designed for the
removal of pharmaceutical products. Indeed, the problem of water scarcity has
played an important role in the introduction of pharmaceutical products into the
environment, particularly in the agricultural sector. Because of the drought, more
and more countries are resorting to the use of treated wastewater to irrigate vegetables for human consumption. Consequently, the reuse of wastewater in agriculture
constitutes a continuous introduction of these molecules into the soil.
The effects of this practice are not entirely clear. However, the probability that
these compounds can enter the food chain directly is high. In fact, through radical
absorption, plants could uptake pharmaceuticals from soil and water, leading to the
accumulation of drugs in the tissues.
The development of analytical methods of solid matrices such as soil or plant
tissues requires substantial work due to the great complexity of the matrices and the
differences between the physico-chemical properties of analytes of interest. Several
multi-class methods have recently been developed to determine a large number of
pharmaceutical products in soil or plants using different extraction techniques.
This chapter addresses to list all the analytical procedures published so far used
for the extraction and analysis of pharmaceutical products from plant tissues and
from the soil irrigated with treated wastewater.
Keywords ASE, Crop uptake, Pharmaceuticals, QuEChERS, Soil contamination,
USE
1 Introduction
Treated wastewater is an incredible resource to cope with the increasing demand of
water to meet the agricultural sector, undermined by the continued lack of water and
frequent water shortages. In fact, the use of wastewater in irrigation as well as
stabilizing the nutrient content in the soil can lead to an increase in the production
of crops in arid areas due to the constant input of organic and mineral components
into the soil through the wastewater. Despite the high content of nutrients, especially
nitrogen immediately available for plant growth [1], irrigation of crops with recycled
water can lead to the spread of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) in
agricultural land and waters. These substances are part of the products of daily use
418
R. Manasfi et al.
7.1 Sampling, Sample Preparation, and Extraction . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 471
8 Separation and Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Abstract Pharmaceuticals have been becoming a major concern of environmental
pollution since the beginning of the century. The ways in which these contaminants
are introduced into the environment are very different, but almost always associated
with wastewater. In fact, current wastewater treatment plants are not designed for the
removal of pharmaceutical products. Indeed, the problem of water scarcity has
played an important role in the introduction of pharmaceutical products into the
environment, particularly in the agricultural sector. Because of the drought, more
and more countries are resorting to the use of treated wastewater to irrigate vegetables for human consumption. Consequently, the reuse of wastewater in agriculture
constitutes a continuous introduction of these molecules into the soil.
The effects of this practice are not entirely clear. However, the probability that
these compounds can enter the food chain directly is high. In fact, through radical
absorption, plants could uptake pharmaceuticals from soil and water, leading to the
accumulation of drugs in the tissues.
The development of analytical methods of solid matrices such as soil or plant
tissues requires substantial work due to the great complexity of the matrices and the
differences between the physico-chemical properties of analytes of interest. Several
multi-class methods have recently been developed to determine a large number of
pharmaceutical products in soil or plants using different extraction techniques.
This chapter addresses to list all the analytical procedures published so far used
for the extraction and analysis of pharmaceutical products from plant tissues and
from the soil irrigated with treated wastewater.
Keywords ASE, Crop uptake, Pharmaceuticals, QuEChERS, Soil contamination,
USE
1 Introduction
Treated wastewater is an incredible resource to cope with the increasing demand of
water to meet the agricultural sector, undermined by the continued lack of water and
frequent water shortages. In fact, the use of wastewater in irrigation as well as
stabilizing the nutrient content in the soil can lead to an increase in the production
of crops in arid areas due to the constant input of organic and mineral components
into the soil through the wastewater. Despite the high content of nutrients, especially
nitrogen immediately available for plant growth [1], irrigation of crops with recycled
water can lead to the spread of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) in
agricultural land and waters. These substances are part of the products of daily use
418
R. Manasfi et al.