the anaerobic; therefore, VF and aerated systems have shown the best performances.
However, hybrid designs that allow for multiple processes and extended treatment
time have shown benefits for increasing the removal of certain compounds. Operational parameters have been widely studied, but their role cannot be disconnected
from the specific designs tested and the environmental conditions of geographical
area where the systems are tested/built. Several of these parameters are important to
understand the observed processes but are also independent variables that may prove
hard to control. In addition, pharmaceutical removal has been assessed in CWs
designed and built to removal carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous. It is yet to be
proposed which key mechanism can and should be optimized for improving the
removal of pharmaceuticals in CWs.
The political agenda is currently favourable for increasing the efforts on controlling pharmaceuticals pollution by implementation of CWs as nature-based solutions.
Thus, further developments of the technology are expected for the future.
References
1. Vasquez MI et al (2014) Environmental side effects of pharmaceutical cocktails: what we
know and what we should know. J Hazard Mater 279:169–189
2. Voulvoulis N, Barceló D, Verlicchi P (2016) Pharmaceutical residues in sewage treatment
works and their fate in the receiving environment. In: Pharmaceuticals in the environment. The
Royal Society of Chemistry, London, pp 120–179
3. Boxall AB et al (2012) Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: what
are the big questions? Environ Health Perspect 120(9):1221–1229
4. OECD (2019) Pharmaceutical residues in freshwater: hazards and policy responses. In: OECD
studies on water. OECD, Paris
5. Dulio V et al (2018) Emerging pollutants in the EU: 10 years of NORMAN in support of
environmental policies and regulations. Environ Sci Eur 30(1):5
6. Kummerer K (2009) The presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment due to human use –
present knowledge and future challenges. J Environ Manag 90(8):2354–2366
7. Rogowska J et al (2020) Micropollutants in treated wastewater. Ambio 49(2):487–503
8. Petrović M, Gonzalez S, Barceló D (2003) Analysis and removal of emerging contaminants in
wastewater and drinking water. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 22(10):685–696
9. Kinney CA, Heuvel BV (2020) Translocation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products
after land application of biosolids. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health 14:23–30
10. Sarmah AK, Meyer MT, Boxall ABA (2006) A global perspective on the use, sales, exposure
pathways, occurrence, fate and effects of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) in the environment.
Chemosphere 65(5):725–759
11. Fatta-Kassinos D, Meric S, Nikolaou A (2011) Pharmaceutical residues in environmental
waters and wastewater: current state of knowledge and future research. Anal Bioanal Chem
399(1):251–275
12. Liu B, Zhang S-g, Chang C-C (2019) Emerging pollutants—part II: treatment. Water Environ
Res 91(10):1390–1401
13. Sun H et al (2019) Water reclamation and reuse. Water Environ Res 91(10):1080–1090
14. Seleiman MF, Santanen A, Mäkelä PSA (2020) Recycling sludge on cropland as fertilizer –
advantages and risks. Resour Conserv Recycl 155:104647
408
P. N. Carvalho
However, hybrid designs that allow for multiple processes and extended treatment
time have shown benefits for increasing the removal of certain compounds. Operational parameters have been widely studied, but their role cannot be disconnected
from the specific designs tested and the environmental conditions of geographical
area where the systems are tested/built. Several of these parameters are important to
understand the observed processes but are also independent variables that may prove
hard to control. In addition, pharmaceutical removal has been assessed in CWs
designed and built to removal carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous. It is yet to be
proposed which key mechanism can and should be optimized for improving the
removal of pharmaceuticals in CWs.
The political agenda is currently favourable for increasing the efforts on controlling pharmaceuticals pollution by implementation of CWs as nature-based solutions.
Thus, further developments of the technology are expected for the future.
References
1. Vasquez MI et al (2014) Environmental side effects of pharmaceutical cocktails: what we
know and what we should know. J Hazard Mater 279:169–189
2. Voulvoulis N, Barceló D, Verlicchi P (2016) Pharmaceutical residues in sewage treatment
works and their fate in the receiving environment. In: Pharmaceuticals in the environment. The
Royal Society of Chemistry, London, pp 120–179
3. Boxall AB et al (2012) Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: what
are the big questions? Environ Health Perspect 120(9):1221–1229
4. OECD (2019) Pharmaceutical residues in freshwater: hazards and policy responses. In: OECD
studies on water. OECD, Paris
5. Dulio V et al (2018) Emerging pollutants in the EU: 10 years of NORMAN in support of
environmental policies and regulations. Environ Sci Eur 30(1):5
6. Kummerer K (2009) The presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment due to human use –
present knowledge and future challenges. J Environ Manag 90(8):2354–2366
7. Rogowska J et al (2020) Micropollutants in treated wastewater. Ambio 49(2):487–503
8. Petrović M, Gonzalez S, Barceló D (2003) Analysis and removal of emerging contaminants in
wastewater and drinking water. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 22(10):685–696
9. Kinney CA, Heuvel BV (2020) Translocation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products
after land application of biosolids. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health 14:23–30
10. Sarmah AK, Meyer MT, Boxall ABA (2006) A global perspective on the use, sales, exposure
pathways, occurrence, fate and effects of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) in the environment.
Chemosphere 65(5):725–759
11. Fatta-Kassinos D, Meric S, Nikolaou A (2011) Pharmaceutical residues in environmental
waters and wastewater: current state of knowledge and future research. Anal Bioanal Chem
399(1):251–275
12. Liu B, Zhang S-g, Chang C-C (2019) Emerging pollutants—part II: treatment. Water Environ
Res 91(10):1390–1401
13. Sun H et al (2019) Water reclamation and reuse. Water Environ Res 91(10):1080–1090
14. Seleiman MF, Santanen A, Mäkelä PSA (2020) Recycling sludge on cropland as fertilizer –
advantages and risks. Resour Conserv Recycl 155:104647
408
P. N. Carvalho