discuss the applicability of constructed wetlands to control the emission of pharmaceuticals. The current chapter aims to (1) provide an insight to the performance of
constructed wetlands under a variety of configurations and design options for the
removal of pharmaceuticals; (2) discuss removal processes, namely, plant and
biological-driven biodegradation, the challenges in its application and reproducibility, the knowledge gaps and the future trends; and (3) link constructed wetland usage
and developments with the recent trends of nature-based solution and
phytoremediation implementation towards a green transition.
Keywords Biofilters, Combined sewage overflow, Contaminants of emerging
concern, Nature-based solutions, Organic micropollutants, Wastewater, Water reuse
and reclamation
1 Introduction
Pharmaceutical release into the environment is one of the largest researched topics of
the past decades within the environmental field [1, 2]. More than 15,000 publications
are available on the topic, among which, 2,773 are review papers (accessed March
2020 on Scopus). Naturally, several subtopics emerged [3], e.g. from effect directed
analysis of these compounds to answer questions on their toxic effects; non-target
screening analytical analysis to understand what other compounds, human metabolites and transformation products are occurring; and development of suitable treatment technology or the potential impact to crops and consequently to humans and
animals due to consumption of potentially contaminated crops.
Compounds like diclofenac (an anti-inflammatory drug) and erythromycin
(an antibiotic) are already listed as candidate contaminants by the European Union
(EU) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). However, only
a small number of compounds are currently covered by legal regulations, namely,
with reference to water contamination. Current policy approaches to manage pharmaceutical residues are considered inadequate for the protection of water quality and
freshwater ecosystems [4]. In EU, the creation of the NORMAN Network was a
stepping stone to support the monitoring of emerging environmental substances [5],
and the ongoing implementation of the Water Framework Directive has increased
the debate around the list of priority substances and substances of concern. The
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has called for a
global discussion on moving towards proactive policy action to curb pharmaceutical
pollution [4].
Earlier on, two waste streams have been considered the major source of pharmaceuticals to the environment: wastewater [6–8] and biosolids [9, 10]. A major
research effort has been placed on wastewater [11], not only in the occurrence but
also in the treatment technology – how can these compounds be effectively removed?
378
P. N. Carvalho
constructed wetlands under a variety of configurations and design options for the
removal of pharmaceuticals; (2) discuss removal processes, namely, plant and
biological-driven biodegradation, the challenges in its application and reproducibility, the knowledge gaps and the future trends; and (3) link constructed wetland usage
and developments with the recent trends of nature-based solution and
phytoremediation implementation towards a green transition.
Keywords Biofilters, Combined sewage overflow, Contaminants of emerging
concern, Nature-based solutions, Organic micropollutants, Wastewater, Water reuse
and reclamation
1 Introduction
Pharmaceutical release into the environment is one of the largest researched topics of
the past decades within the environmental field [1, 2]. More than 15,000 publications
are available on the topic, among which, 2,773 are review papers (accessed March
2020 on Scopus). Naturally, several subtopics emerged [3], e.g. from effect directed
analysis of these compounds to answer questions on their toxic effects; non-target
screening analytical analysis to understand what other compounds, human metabolites and transformation products are occurring; and development of suitable treatment technology or the potential impact to crops and consequently to humans and
animals due to consumption of potentially contaminated crops.
Compounds like diclofenac (an anti-inflammatory drug) and erythromycin
(an antibiotic) are already listed as candidate contaminants by the European Union
(EU) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). However, only
a small number of compounds are currently covered by legal regulations, namely,
with reference to water contamination. Current policy approaches to manage pharmaceutical residues are considered inadequate for the protection of water quality and
freshwater ecosystems [4]. In EU, the creation of the NORMAN Network was a
stepping stone to support the monitoring of emerging environmental substances [5],
and the ongoing implementation of the Water Framework Directive has increased
the debate around the list of priority substances and substances of concern. The
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has called for a
global discussion on moving towards proactive policy action to curb pharmaceutical
pollution [4].
Earlier on, two waste streams have been considered the major source of pharmaceuticals to the environment: wastewater [6–8] and biosolids [9, 10]. A major
research effort has been placed on wastewater [11], not only in the occurrence but
also in the treatment technology – how can these compounds be effectively removed?
378
P. N. Carvalho