part of these two phases, the plant cell can implement a further phase III detoxification mechanism constituted by the enzymes present in the vacuole [75].
Among the numerous studies carried out, it appears that the psychoactive drugs
are compounds that most accumulate, translocate, and metabolize inside the plant. In
particular, the carbamazepine is among the most studied model compounds, since its
presence in wastewater is pseudo-constant due to its recalcitrance to degradation.
Hence, numerous studies report the presence of carbamazepine and its metabolites in
different agricultural crops [76–78].
9 Presence of Drugs in Earthworms
The presence and effects of drugs following the use of wastewater in agriculture has
also been observed in soil invertebrates [79–85]. Of all the terrestrial invertebrates
that live in the area explored by the roots, earthworms are the most abundant species
in terms of biomass (80% of the soil biota). This causes earthworms to be considered
key organisms of the soil-root-plant system since, by constantly digging through the
soil, earthworms recycle nutrients and create the conditions for good soil aeration
and drainage, leading to a fertile environment [85]. Unfortunately, in addition to
making the soil more fertile, earthworms with their movements redistribute organic
contaminants from the deepest areas to the root area, consequently increasing the
availability of these compounds for plants. Being in close contact with the soil
matrix, earthworms are exposed to a variety of anthropogenic organic pollutants
including pharmaceutical products. They are therefore indispensable organisms for
assessing soil contamination by these substances and would also help us better
understand the entry of contaminants into food chains, since they occupy the lowest
level in the trophic web.
However, the number of studies to evaluate the effects of pharmaceutical products on soil invertebrates is currently quite limited, and most of the research is largely
focused on laboratory tests. In part this could also be due to the lack of reliable multiresidual analytical methods, since the extraction and analysis of these compounds
from earthworm tissues is quite complicated [85].
10 Drugs in Constructed Wetlands
Drugs can be also depurated from wastewater by plants in constructed wetlands
(CW). They are a low-cost alternative wastewater treatment technology mainly used
for the treatment of urban or agro-livestock wastewater from small rural towns.
Consisting of flooded vegetated beds designed to imitate the well-known water
purification capacity of natural wetlands, CWs are a nature-based solution for
wastewater management. Furthermore, in recent years, CWs have proven to be an
excellent advanced (tertiary) treatment system since they reduce most of the
22
N. Montemurro et al.
Among the numerous studies carried out, it appears that the psychoactive drugs
are compounds that most accumulate, translocate, and metabolize inside the plant. In
particular, the carbamazepine is among the most studied model compounds, since its
presence in wastewater is pseudo-constant due to its recalcitrance to degradation.
Hence, numerous studies report the presence of carbamazepine and its metabolites in
different agricultural crops [76–78].
9 Presence of Drugs in Earthworms
The presence and effects of drugs following the use of wastewater in agriculture has
also been observed in soil invertebrates [79–85]. Of all the terrestrial invertebrates
that live in the area explored by the roots, earthworms are the most abundant species
in terms of biomass (80% of the soil biota). This causes earthworms to be considered
key organisms of the soil-root-plant system since, by constantly digging through the
soil, earthworms recycle nutrients and create the conditions for good soil aeration
and drainage, leading to a fertile environment [85]. Unfortunately, in addition to
making the soil more fertile, earthworms with their movements redistribute organic
contaminants from the deepest areas to the root area, consequently increasing the
availability of these compounds for plants. Being in close contact with the soil
matrix, earthworms are exposed to a variety of anthropogenic organic pollutants
including pharmaceutical products. They are therefore indispensable organisms for
assessing soil contamination by these substances and would also help us better
understand the entry of contaminants into food chains, since they occupy the lowest
level in the trophic web.
However, the number of studies to evaluate the effects of pharmaceutical products on soil invertebrates is currently quite limited, and most of the research is largely
focused on laboratory tests. In part this could also be due to the lack of reliable multiresidual analytical methods, since the extraction and analysis of these compounds
from earthworm tissues is quite complicated [85].
10 Drugs in Constructed Wetlands
Drugs can be also depurated from wastewater by plants in constructed wetlands
(CW). They are a low-cost alternative wastewater treatment technology mainly used
for the treatment of urban or agro-livestock wastewater from small rural towns.
Consisting of flooded vegetated beds designed to imitate the well-known water
purification capacity of natural wetlands, CWs are a nature-based solution for
wastewater management. Furthermore, in recent years, CWs have proven to be an
excellent advanced (tertiary) treatment system since they reduce most of the
22
N. Montemurro et al.