The ecotoxicity of fluoxetine and citalopram on aquatic organisms has been
widely documented [251–253]. They affect the behavior, reproduction, development, and survival of aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates [254, 255]. On microbes,
psychotropic drugs such as fluoxetine have been found to inhibit microbial activity
[256]. In this regard, fluoxetine has significant antibacterial effect and potential
antibiotic modulating activity against multiresistant bacteria [257]. Fluoxetine
reduced the richness and increased the beta diversity of gut microbiota [258].
3.4 Antiepileptics: Carbamazepine
Carbamazepine is a relatively lipophilic antiepileptic drug used to control and
prevent seizures [259, 260]. Due to its scarce removal in wastewater treatment plants
[186, 188, 261–263], carbamazepine is frequently found in municipal effluents
[63, 188, 260]. For this reason, it has been proposed as an anthropogenic marker
of sewage contamination in aquatic environments [264–266]. Carbamazepine is also
frequently detected in arable soils irrigated with wastewater, amended with biosolids
or in soils where reclaimed water is used to recharge groundwater [239, 240, 267].
In soils carbamazepine was barely degraded (1.2% of mineralization after
120 days of incubation) and transformed to a range of transformation products not
adsorbed to soil components (4.2% recoveries as non-extractable residues of initially
applied carbamazepine) [62]. The persistence and accumulation of carbamazepine in
soils have been reported by many authors [123, 268]. However, some fungi
[153, 269–273], bacteria [102, 274, 275], or the combination of both [276] is able
to degrade carbamazepine [277]. In this context, a recent study performed in four
agricultural soils identified by means of shotgun sequencing the most abundant
phytolypes (Rhodococcus, Streptomyces, and Pseudomonas) and associated functional genes [130]. The uptake and metabolism of carbamazepine by endophytic
bacteria were studied by Sauvêtre et al. who reported a number of degrading
endophytic isolates and identified several degradation products [278, 279].
The ecotoxicological effect of carbamazepine was studied on riverine biofilm
communities where it was found to reduce the bacterial biomass and the abundance
of gamma-proteobacteria, suppress the Cyanobacteria, and increase in algal biomass
and abundance of beta-proteobacteria [180]. In soils, the ecotoxicological effects of
carbamazepine on soil microorganism have been recently reported indicating an
enrichment of Sphingomonadaceae, Xanthomonadaceae, and Rhodobacteraceae
[213] and an increase in Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia possibly due to the
emergence of carbamazepine degraders [123, 213]. In addition, the abundance of
Flavobacterium, three genus incertae sedis and Bacteroidetes decreased [213]
revealing the toxicity of carbamazepine toward these microorganisms.
It is noteworthy that carbamazepine applied at environmental concentrations can
induce horizontal transfer of plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance among the
bacteria community [280]. Given the co-occurrence of PhACs in environments,
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widely documented [251–253]. They affect the behavior, reproduction, development, and survival of aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates [254, 255]. On microbes,
psychotropic drugs such as fluoxetine have been found to inhibit microbial activity
[256]. In this regard, fluoxetine has significant antibacterial effect and potential
antibiotic modulating activity against multiresistant bacteria [257]. Fluoxetine
reduced the richness and increased the beta diversity of gut microbiota [258].
3.4 Antiepileptics: Carbamazepine
Carbamazepine is a relatively lipophilic antiepileptic drug used to control and
prevent seizures [259, 260]. Due to its scarce removal in wastewater treatment plants
[186, 188, 261–263], carbamazepine is frequently found in municipal effluents
[63, 188, 260]. For this reason, it has been proposed as an anthropogenic marker
of sewage contamination in aquatic environments [264–266]. Carbamazepine is also
frequently detected in arable soils irrigated with wastewater, amended with biosolids
or in soils where reclaimed water is used to recharge groundwater [239, 240, 267].
In soils carbamazepine was barely degraded (1.2% of mineralization after
120 days of incubation) and transformed to a range of transformation products not
adsorbed to soil components (4.2% recoveries as non-extractable residues of initially
applied carbamazepine) [62]. The persistence and accumulation of carbamazepine in
soils have been reported by many authors [123, 268]. However, some fungi
[153, 269–273], bacteria [102, 274, 275], or the combination of both [276] is able
to degrade carbamazepine [277]. In this context, a recent study performed in four
agricultural soils identified by means of shotgun sequencing the most abundant
phytolypes (Rhodococcus, Streptomyces, and Pseudomonas) and associated functional genes [130]. The uptake and metabolism of carbamazepine by endophytic
bacteria were studied by Sauvêtre et al. who reported a number of degrading
endophytic isolates and identified several degradation products [278, 279].
The ecotoxicological effect of carbamazepine was studied on riverine biofilm
communities where it was found to reduce the bacterial biomass and the abundance
of gamma-proteobacteria, suppress the Cyanobacteria, and increase in algal biomass
and abundance of beta-proteobacteria [180]. In soils, the ecotoxicological effects of
carbamazepine on soil microorganism have been recently reported indicating an
enrichment of Sphingomonadaceae, Xanthomonadaceae, and Rhodobacteraceae
[213] and an increase in Proteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia possibly due to the
emergence of carbamazepine degraders [123, 213]. In addition, the abundance of
Flavobacterium, three genus incertae sedis and Bacteroidetes decreased [213]
revealing the toxicity of carbamazepine toward these microorganisms.
It is noteworthy that carbamazepine applied at environmental concentrations can
induce horizontal transfer of plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance among the
bacteria community [280]. Given the co-occurrence of PhACs in environments,
276
S. Gallego and F. Martin-Laurent