soil ecosystem services supported by microbial guilds. Soil microorganisms play a
pivotal role in multiple ecosystem services. They contribute to soil health, mediate in
biogeochemical cycles, and regulate climate change among other processes. Thus,
the exposure of soil microorganisms to PhACs can influence their functioning with
direct consequences on soil ecosystems. On the one hand, PhACs such as antibiotics
and antifungals can inhibit specific microbial guilds and supported functions and
thereby compromise the survival and growth of certain microbial guilds. On the
other hand, some microorganisms can either develop mechanisms of defense against
toxic PhACs (development of antimicrobial resistance, for instance) or use them as
nutrient source (biodegradation) for their growth leading to the emergence of
specific bacteria. It is noteworthy that some of the PhACs, such as the antibiotics,
are particularly of concern because, when they are released in the environment, they
exert a selection pressure favorable to the development and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance that can impair human and animal health [141].
Here we report some studies regarding the characterization of the ecotoxicological effects of some PhACs on soil microbial communities. The compounds were
selected based on their ubiquitous detection in different environmental matrices and
relevance.
3.1 Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAID):
Naproxen, Ibuprofen, and Diclofenac
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) are medicines used to relieve pain,
decrease fever, and reduce inflammation. These compounds inhibit the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme, required to convert arachidonic acid into thromboxanes,
prostaglandins, and prostacyclins, preventing the platelet adhesion, vasodilation, and
increasing body temperature [142]. Among the different types, naproxen, ibuprofen,
and diclofenac are the most frequently detected NSAIDs in wastewater effluents
[143–148].
3.1.1 Naproxen
Naproxen is an acidic compound frequently found in wastewater effluents and
receiving waters [143, 147, 149, 150]. It was found to be rapidly biodegraded in
liquid microcosms containing either natural microbial communities from river water
[151, 152] or bacteria, fungi, and algae [90, 91, 153–157]. To date, only three studies
have addressed the dissipation of naproxen on agricultural soils, and little information is available regarding its ecotoxicological effects on microorganisms [158]. On
soil microcosms carried out with three different agricultural soils (sandy loam, loam
and silt) never exposed to this NSAID, Topp et al. showed a rapid mineralization of
naproxen after application of liquid municipal biosolids [118]. Naproxen was also
Impact of PhACs on Soil Microorganisms
271
pivotal role in multiple ecosystem services. They contribute to soil health, mediate in
biogeochemical cycles, and regulate climate change among other processes. Thus,
the exposure of soil microorganisms to PhACs can influence their functioning with
direct consequences on soil ecosystems. On the one hand, PhACs such as antibiotics
and antifungals can inhibit specific microbial guilds and supported functions and
thereby compromise the survival and growth of certain microbial guilds. On the
other hand, some microorganisms can either develop mechanisms of defense against
toxic PhACs (development of antimicrobial resistance, for instance) or use them as
nutrient source (biodegradation) for their growth leading to the emergence of
specific bacteria. It is noteworthy that some of the PhACs, such as the antibiotics,
are particularly of concern because, when they are released in the environment, they
exert a selection pressure favorable to the development and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance that can impair human and animal health [141].
Here we report some studies regarding the characterization of the ecotoxicological effects of some PhACs on soil microbial communities. The compounds were
selected based on their ubiquitous detection in different environmental matrices and
relevance.
3.1 Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAID):
Naproxen, Ibuprofen, and Diclofenac
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) are medicines used to relieve pain,
decrease fever, and reduce inflammation. These compounds inhibit the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme, required to convert arachidonic acid into thromboxanes,
prostaglandins, and prostacyclins, preventing the platelet adhesion, vasodilation, and
increasing body temperature [142]. Among the different types, naproxen, ibuprofen,
and diclofenac are the most frequently detected NSAIDs in wastewater effluents
[143–148].
3.1.1 Naproxen
Naproxen is an acidic compound frequently found in wastewater effluents and
receiving waters [143, 147, 149, 150]. It was found to be rapidly biodegraded in
liquid microcosms containing either natural microbial communities from river water
[151, 152] or bacteria, fungi, and algae [90, 91, 153–157]. To date, only three studies
have addressed the dissipation of naproxen on agricultural soils, and little information is available regarding its ecotoxicological effects on microorganisms [158]. On
soil microcosms carried out with three different agricultural soils (sandy loam, loam
and silt) never exposed to this NSAID, Topp et al. showed a rapid mineralization of
naproxen after application of liquid municipal biosolids [118]. Naproxen was also
Impact of PhACs on Soil Microorganisms
271