agroecosystem. Wastewater and both agricultural and municipal biosolids are
known reservoirs for the potentially hundreds of pharmaceuticals that are in use
throughout the world. Over the past 15 years, research has focussed on gaining an
understanding of the extent of exposure, the fate and uptake of these compounds and
the potential toxicological impacts these compounds may have once introduced. The
agricultural system is a complex web of micro and macro fauna that includes
microbes, fungi, invertebrates and plants which all may act as sinks for
bioaccumulation and receptors for these biological active xenobiotic compounds.
In this review, we describe how different experimental designs have been utilised to
provide insights into the extent of uptake into plants and invertebrates, the mechanisms that govern this fate process and the evidence of biological effects that makes
up our current understanding of pharmaceutical exposure in agricultural systems.
We highlight the types of compounds as well as the model plant and invertebrate
organisms that have been most studied. Furthermore, we discuss how geographical
and economic drivers have influenced where research has been conducted and how
this may bias our current understanding of pharmaceutical exposure risk as it relates
to low- and middle-income countries.
Keywords Biosolid amendments, Earthworms, Pharmaceuticals, Plant uptake,
Wastewater reuse
1 Introduction
The demonstrated persistence of pharmaceuticals in soils following land application
of wastewaters, sludges and manures [1–3] spurred on a wealth of studies to evaluate
the fate of pharmaceuticals in terrestrial systems. In particular, research efforts have
centred on the uptake and accumulation of pharmaceuticals in plants and terrestrial
invertebrates, including earthworms.
In the case of plant uptake studies, the majority has been carried out to consider
edible crop accumulation of pharmaceuticals and related human health risks following ingestion (reviewed by [4]). Other studies have focussed on the ability of plants
to remediate pharmaceutical-contaminated water bodies through the use of selected
aquatic macrophytes, such as constructed wetlands. For example, several researchers
have tried to evaluate the removal of carbamazepine by plants (e.g. Lolium perenne,
Typha spp., Typha latifolia, Iris sibirica, Zantedeschia aethiopica and Scirpus
validus) and their potential use in phytoremediation with removal efficiencies
reported to range from 34 to 82% [5–9].
A suite of experimental set-ups in both the field and the laboratory have been used
to evaluate the uptake and accumulation of pharmaceuticals from soils into terrestrial
plants. In countries with a high demand for limited freshwater resources (e.g. Israel,
Saudi Arabia), research has typically focussed on field studies coupled with
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L. J. Carter et al.
known reservoirs for the potentially hundreds of pharmaceuticals that are in use
throughout the world. Over the past 15 years, research has focussed on gaining an
understanding of the extent of exposure, the fate and uptake of these compounds and
the potential toxicological impacts these compounds may have once introduced. The
agricultural system is a complex web of micro and macro fauna that includes
microbes, fungi, invertebrates and plants which all may act as sinks for
bioaccumulation and receptors for these biological active xenobiotic compounds.
In this review, we describe how different experimental designs have been utilised to
provide insights into the extent of uptake into plants and invertebrates, the mechanisms that govern this fate process and the evidence of biological effects that makes
up our current understanding of pharmaceutical exposure in agricultural systems.
We highlight the types of compounds as well as the model plant and invertebrate
organisms that have been most studied. Furthermore, we discuss how geographical
and economic drivers have influenced where research has been conducted and how
this may bias our current understanding of pharmaceutical exposure risk as it relates
to low- and middle-income countries.
Keywords Biosolid amendments, Earthworms, Pharmaceuticals, Plant uptake,
Wastewater reuse
1 Introduction
The demonstrated persistence of pharmaceuticals in soils following land application
of wastewaters, sludges and manures [1–3] spurred on a wealth of studies to evaluate
the fate of pharmaceuticals in terrestrial systems. In particular, research efforts have
centred on the uptake and accumulation of pharmaceuticals in plants and terrestrial
invertebrates, including earthworms.
In the case of plant uptake studies, the majority has been carried out to consider
edible crop accumulation of pharmaceuticals and related human health risks following ingestion (reviewed by [4]). Other studies have focussed on the ability of plants
to remediate pharmaceutical-contaminated water bodies through the use of selected
aquatic macrophytes, such as constructed wetlands. For example, several researchers
have tried to evaluate the removal of carbamazepine by plants (e.g. Lolium perenne,
Typha spp., Typha latifolia, Iris sibirica, Zantedeschia aethiopica and Scirpus
validus) and their potential use in phytoremediation with removal efficiencies
reported to range from 34 to 82% [5–9].
A suite of experimental set-ups in both the field and the laboratory have been used
to evaluate the uptake and accumulation of pharmaceuticals from soils into terrestrial
plants. In countries with a high demand for limited freshwater resources (e.g. Israel,
Saudi Arabia), research has typically focussed on field studies coupled with
176
L. J. Carter et al.