6.3.4 Long Wavelength Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.3.5 Radiative Properties of Natural Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.4 Transient Heat Balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4.1 The Concept of Time Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4.2 Transient Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.5 Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.5.1 Gases and Water Vapor Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.5.2 Particle Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.5.3 Particle Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.5.4 Sand and Dust Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.5.5 Sediment Transportation in Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7 Examples of Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.1 Concepts of Energy Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2 Example 1: Calculation of Energy in a Light Photon . . . . . . . . . 238
7.3 Example 2: Estimation of Solar Hourly Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.4 Example 3: Estimation of Atmospheric Transmissivity
from Solar Radiation Values Measured at the Surface . . . . . . . . . 241
7.5 Example 4: Calculation of Short- and Long-Wavelength
Incident Radiation on a Given Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.6 Example 5: Calculation of Radiation Budgets in a Eucalyptus
Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.7 Example 6: Calculation of Sensible Heat Transfer from
the Low Canopy to the Adjacent Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.8 Example 7: Application of the Aerodynamic Method . . . . . . . . . 249
7.9 Example 8: Application of the Eddy Covariance Method . . . . . . 251
7.10 Example 9: Calculation of Vertical Fluxes Using the Bowen
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
7.11 Example 10: Calculation of the Solar Radiation Intensity
Components and Long Wavelength Incident on a Building
with a Known Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
7.12 Example 11: Calculation of Kinetic Energy Budget Components
for a Flat Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
7.13 Example 12: Calculation of Sedimentation Velocity
of a Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.14 Example 13: Calculation of Variation of Velocity
and Pressure in Airflow in a Plain and a Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8 Fundamentals of Global Carbon Budgets and Climate Change . . . . 267
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
8.2 Topics on GHG Emissions and Global Carbon Budget . . . . . . . . 272
8.3 Alternative Scenarios for Climate Change Predictions . . . . . . . . . 278
Contents
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6.3.5 Radiative Properties of Natural Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.4 Transient Heat Balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4.1 The Concept of Time Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4.2 Transient Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.5 Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.5.1 Gases and Water Vapor Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.5.2 Particle Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.5.3 Particle Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.5.4 Sand and Dust Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.5.5 Sediment Transportation in Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7 Examples of Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.1 Concepts of Energy Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2 Example 1: Calculation of Energy in a Light Photon . . . . . . . . . 238
7.3 Example 2: Estimation of Solar Hourly Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.4 Example 3: Estimation of Atmospheric Transmissivity
from Solar Radiation Values Measured at the Surface . . . . . . . . . 241
7.5 Example 4: Calculation of Short- and Long-Wavelength
Incident Radiation on a Given Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.6 Example 5: Calculation of Radiation Budgets in a Eucalyptus
Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.7 Example 6: Calculation of Sensible Heat Transfer from
the Low Canopy to the Adjacent Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.8 Example 7: Application of the Aerodynamic Method . . . . . . . . . 249
7.9 Example 8: Application of the Eddy Covariance Method . . . . . . 251
7.10 Example 9: Calculation of Vertical Fluxes Using the Bowen
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
7.11 Example 10: Calculation of the Solar Radiation Intensity
Components and Long Wavelength Incident on a Building
with a Known Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
7.12 Example 11: Calculation of Kinetic Energy Budget Components
for a Flat Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
7.13 Example 12: Calculation of Sedimentation Velocity
of a Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7.14 Example 13: Calculation of Variation of Velocity
and Pressure in Airflow in a Plain and a Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8 Fundamentals of Global Carbon Budgets and Climate Change . . . . 267
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
8.2 Topics on GHG Emissions and Global Carbon Budget . . . . . . . . 272
8.3 Alternative Scenarios for Climate Change Predictions . . . . . . . . . 278
Contents
xv