29
The term carbohydrate is used for compounds with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fats, oils, and waxes are esters. The oil exists as liquid at room temperature
whereas fats and waxes remain as solid at room temperature. Hydrolysis of fats and
oils is induced usually by treatment with NaOH or bacterial enzymes.
Pesticides used to control pests can be inorganic, natural organic, or synthetic
organic.
The main types of synthetic pesticides are as follows:
1. Chlorinated pesticides.
2. Organic phosphorous pesticides.
3. Carbamate pesticides.
R and R′, R″, R′″ represent any two alkyl and aryl groups, which may be alike or
different.
Synthetic detergents are formulations containing surfactants such as alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS), fatty alcohol, fatty acid soaps, bleaching agents, ester and
similar compounds, phosphates as well as anti-redeposition agents, optical brighteners, fabric softeners, as well as certain other chemicals to enhance the detergent action.
Detergents are important to environmental professional as they form foam
(Fig. 1.20), cause eutrophication (process of transformation from nutrient-scarce
conditions to nutrient-rich conditions, resulting in algal blooms in water bodies),
and hinder oxygen transfer to surface water bodies.
The traditional heavy-duty laundry powder contains about 15% active surfactant
such as linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) and 20–25% builder such as sodium
tripolyphosphate (STPP). This phosphate builder is added to soften the water. One
kilogram of phosphorus can generate up to 500 kg of algae causing vast dead zones
in seas completely devoid of aquatic life (WWF 2011). Hence, the European Union
has adopted stringent standards for phosphate content in detergents, which is not the
case in other parts of the world.
Prior to the widespread adoption of LAS as a surfactant, branched alkyl benzene
sulfonate (ABS) was commonly used in detergents, which is a non-biodegradable
or a hard detergent and has been gradually replaced by LAS.
1.7 Equilibrium Chemistry
Consider the following reaction wherein carbon dioxide reacts with water to form
carbonic acid:
CO H O H CO
2
2
2
3
+
In this reaction, carbonic acid disintegrates to form carbon dioxide and water.
This phenomenon calls for one more set of definition—forward and backward (or
reverse) reactions.
1.6 Organic Chemistry
The term carbohydrate is used for compounds with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fats, oils, and waxes are esters. The oil exists as liquid at room temperature
whereas fats and waxes remain as solid at room temperature. Hydrolysis of fats and
oils is induced usually by treatment with NaOH or bacterial enzymes.
Pesticides used to control pests can be inorganic, natural organic, or synthetic
organic.
The main types of synthetic pesticides are as follows:
1. Chlorinated pesticides.
2. Organic phosphorous pesticides.
3. Carbamate pesticides.
R and R′, R″, R′″ represent any two alkyl and aryl groups, which may be alike or
different.
Synthetic detergents are formulations containing surfactants such as alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS), fatty alcohol, fatty acid soaps, bleaching agents, ester and
similar compounds, phosphates as well as anti-redeposition agents, optical brighteners, fabric softeners, as well as certain other chemicals to enhance the detergent action.
Detergents are important to environmental professional as they form foam
(Fig. 1.20), cause eutrophication (process of transformation from nutrient-scarce
conditions to nutrient-rich conditions, resulting in algal blooms in water bodies),
and hinder oxygen transfer to surface water bodies.
The traditional heavy-duty laundry powder contains about 15% active surfactant
such as linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) and 20–25% builder such as sodium
tripolyphosphate (STPP). This phosphate builder is added to soften the water. One
kilogram of phosphorus can generate up to 500 kg of algae causing vast dead zones
in seas completely devoid of aquatic life (WWF 2011). Hence, the European Union
has adopted stringent standards for phosphate content in detergents, which is not the
case in other parts of the world.
Prior to the widespread adoption of LAS as a surfactant, branched alkyl benzene
sulfonate (ABS) was commonly used in detergents, which is a non-biodegradable
or a hard detergent and has been gradually replaced by LAS.
1.7 Equilibrium Chemistry
Consider the following reaction wherein carbon dioxide reacts with water to form
carbonic acid:
CO H O H CO
2
2
2
3
+
In this reaction, carbonic acid disintegrates to form carbon dioxide and water.
This phenomenon calls for one more set of definition—forward and backward (or
reverse) reactions.
1.6 Organic Chemistry