243
Pharmaceuticals and chemicals used in health-care establishments are also hazardous (WHO 2014b) present in health-care waste and may cause intoxication and
injuries.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated due to combustion of E-waste and
heavy metals are of health concern. The combustion of insulated wire typically done
in open iron barrels, generate 100 times greater dioxins compared to combustion of
domestic waste (Gullett et al. 2007).
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) that have endocrine disrupting properties (Tseng et al. 2008) are used as flame-retardants by mixing with plastics and
other electrical/electronic components. Since there are no chemical bonds between
the plastics and PBDEs they may leach from E-waste into the environment (Deng
et al. 2007). As PBDEs are lipophilic, they may bioaccumulate in organisms
resulting in biomagnification and impose health issues. E-waste is linked inflammation besides oxidative stress—precursors to DNA damage and cardiovascular disease, possibly cancer (Fangxing et al. 2011).
Open burning is nonpoint but localized area sources with heterogeneous fuels
and release emissions near ground instead of tall stacks. Burning chlorinated materials, hydrocarbons, and pesticide compounds between 250 and 700 °C in oxygenstarved conditions generate toxic gases like carbon monoxide, dioxins/furans,
hydrogen chloride, oxides of sulfur, oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter, volatile
organic compounds, and metals such as antimony, barium, arsenic, beryllium, chromium, cadmium, lead, mercury, manganese, titanium, and phosphorus (Nammari
et al. 2004). Black carbon from open burning practices pose risks of respiratory
disease, cardiovascular disease, and premature death (PNAS 2014). Burning tires
emit dioxins as well as benzene derivatives linked with cancer and reproductive
impairment in humans (Adeolu and Adebayo 2012).
Table 6.3 Categories of health-care waste
Sl.
No. Waste category
Description
Example
1.
Chemical waste
Waste materials containing chemicals used
in health-care establishments
Laboratory reagents
2.
Cytotoxic waste
Waste materials containing genotoxic
properties
Waste comprising
cytostatic drugs
3.
Infectious waste
Waste suspected to be contaminated with
pathogen
Waste contaminated
with blood
4.
Non-hazardous
health-care waste
Waste material that does not pose any
particular chemical, biological, physical, or
radioactive hazard
Uncontaminated
waste stationary
5.
Pathological waste
Organs, tissues, body fluids as well as
contaminated animal carcasses
Amputated organs
6.
Pharmaceutical
waste
Expired, discarded pharmaceuticals
Expired tablets
7.
Radioactive waste
Waste material with radioactive material
Unused liquids from
radiotherapy
8.
Sharps waste
Waste sharps
Used needle, blade
6.5 Impact of Solid Waste on Health
Pharmaceuticals and chemicals used in health-care establishments are also hazardous (WHO 2014b) present in health-care waste and may cause intoxication and
injuries.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated due to combustion of E-waste and
heavy metals are of health concern. The combustion of insulated wire typically done
in open iron barrels, generate 100 times greater dioxins compared to combustion of
domestic waste (Gullett et al. 2007).
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) that have endocrine disrupting properties (Tseng et al. 2008) are used as flame-retardants by mixing with plastics and
other electrical/electronic components. Since there are no chemical bonds between
the plastics and PBDEs they may leach from E-waste into the environment (Deng
et al. 2007). As PBDEs are lipophilic, they may bioaccumulate in organisms
resulting in biomagnification and impose health issues. E-waste is linked inflammation besides oxidative stress—precursors to DNA damage and cardiovascular disease, possibly cancer (Fangxing et al. 2011).
Open burning is nonpoint but localized area sources with heterogeneous fuels
and release emissions near ground instead of tall stacks. Burning chlorinated materials, hydrocarbons, and pesticide compounds between 250 and 700 °C in oxygenstarved conditions generate toxic gases like carbon monoxide, dioxins/furans,
hydrogen chloride, oxides of sulfur, oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter, volatile
organic compounds, and metals such as antimony, barium, arsenic, beryllium, chromium, cadmium, lead, mercury, manganese, titanium, and phosphorus (Nammari
et al. 2004). Black carbon from open burning practices pose risks of respiratory
disease, cardiovascular disease, and premature death (PNAS 2014). Burning tires
emit dioxins as well as benzene derivatives linked with cancer and reproductive
impairment in humans (Adeolu and Adebayo 2012).
Table 6.3 Categories of health-care waste
Sl.
No. Waste category
Description
Example
1.
Chemical waste
Waste materials containing chemicals used
in health-care establishments
Laboratory reagents
2.
Cytotoxic waste
Waste materials containing genotoxic
properties
Waste comprising
cytostatic drugs
3.
Infectious waste
Waste suspected to be contaminated with
pathogen
Waste contaminated
with blood
4.
Non-hazardous
health-care waste
Waste material that does not pose any
particular chemical, biological, physical, or
radioactive hazard
Uncontaminated
waste stationary
5.
Pathological waste
Organs, tissues, body fluids as well as
contaminated animal carcasses
Amputated organs
6.
Pharmaceutical
waste
Expired, discarded pharmaceuticals
Expired tablets
7.
Radioactive waste
Waste material with radioactive material
Unused liquids from
radiotherapy
8.
Sharps waste
Waste sharps
Used needle, blade
6.5 Impact of Solid Waste on Health