can be divided into two groups: a group of cities that retained their own local
traditions, and a group that adopted the new grid planning for vast cities.
6. The modern era: The advent of the Industrial Revolution in the modern era
accelerated new trends in urban planning throughout the globe. City walls
disappeared and new urban areas sprawled outward. The modern era began at
the start of the nineteenth century.
Increasing populations of factory workers, who had migrated from rural areas
to the cities, resulted in unsanitary conditions and created new urban problems in
the large cities of London and Paris. In response to the emerging urban problems
and environmental degradation, housing improvements and social reformism
arose in Europe and North America.
Around 1900, improvements in sanitary technology allowed for increases in
urban populations. Moreover, in the twentieth century, the concept of the garden
city and urban planning developed as international styles. Societal reformations
also occurred, with the provision of public housing by governments and the
enforcement of neighborhood planning.
From 1950, after the Second World War (WWII), many Asian and African
nation states attained independence, and the populations of their capital cities and
economic centers grew. Urban problems involving slum areas and informal
developments arose. Simultaneously, the energy revolution, involving the shift
from coal to petroleum, occurred.
From 1980, free cross-border movements of people, goods, capital, and
information were activated. However, the idea of the smart city or compact city
was preferred in Europe, North America, and Oceania. In Asia and Africa, the gap
between old, deteriorating, inner city areas and modern, new housing in the
suburbs became evident, especially in cities with historic areas. New York and
Tokyo arose as “megacities,” followed, in the second half of the twentieth
century, by many other megacities. The megacity is rooted in European ideals
and goes beyond urban planning based on technical knowledge and human
willpower.
5.2.2 The Six Types of Regional Environments
We divide the Earth into six regions based on their urban commonalities (Muramatsu
2016a) as follows: (1) mid-latitude arid region, (2) monsoon Asia, (3) upper Eurasia,
(4) North America and Oceania, (5) Latin America, and (6) sub-Saharan Africa. This
hypothesis of the six regions is based on the environment and history forming natural
ecosystems, and human activities. In more detail, these regions were determined
based on four indexes: (1) natural ecology, (2) economic and social infrastructure,
(3) urban dynamics, and (4) urban morphology. In this section, the features of the
regions will be explained along with their urban history.
An examination of the history of cities indicates that cities first arose in the
mid-latitude arid region, which encompasses the Mediterranean and West and
74
N. Fukami
traditions, and a group that adopted the new grid planning for vast cities.
6. The modern era: The advent of the Industrial Revolution in the modern era
accelerated new trends in urban planning throughout the globe. City walls
disappeared and new urban areas sprawled outward. The modern era began at
the start of the nineteenth century.
Increasing populations of factory workers, who had migrated from rural areas
to the cities, resulted in unsanitary conditions and created new urban problems in
the large cities of London and Paris. In response to the emerging urban problems
and environmental degradation, housing improvements and social reformism
arose in Europe and North America.
Around 1900, improvements in sanitary technology allowed for increases in
urban populations. Moreover, in the twentieth century, the concept of the garden
city and urban planning developed as international styles. Societal reformations
also occurred, with the provision of public housing by governments and the
enforcement of neighborhood planning.
From 1950, after the Second World War (WWII), many Asian and African
nation states attained independence, and the populations of their capital cities and
economic centers grew. Urban problems involving slum areas and informal
developments arose. Simultaneously, the energy revolution, involving the shift
from coal to petroleum, occurred.
From 1980, free cross-border movements of people, goods, capital, and
information were activated. However, the idea of the smart city or compact city
was preferred in Europe, North America, and Oceania. In Asia and Africa, the gap
between old, deteriorating, inner city areas and modern, new housing in the
suburbs became evident, especially in cities with historic areas. New York and
Tokyo arose as “megacities,” followed, in the second half of the twentieth
century, by many other megacities. The megacity is rooted in European ideals
and goes beyond urban planning based on technical knowledge and human
willpower.
5.2.2 The Six Types of Regional Environments
We divide the Earth into six regions based on their urban commonalities (Muramatsu
2016a) as follows: (1) mid-latitude arid region, (2) monsoon Asia, (3) upper Eurasia,
(4) North America and Oceania, (5) Latin America, and (6) sub-Saharan Africa. This
hypothesis of the six regions is based on the environment and history forming natural
ecosystems, and human activities. In more detail, these regions were determined
based on four indexes: (1) natural ecology, (2) economic and social infrastructure,
(3) urban dynamics, and (4) urban morphology. In this section, the features of the
regions will be explained along with their urban history.
An examination of the history of cities indicates that cities first arose in the
mid-latitude arid region, which encompasses the Mediterranean and West and
74
N. Fukami