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C. Wang
(3) Deep ecology: Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy that emphasizes that all creatures have the right of survival and inherent values regardless of their use value to mankind, and that the natural world is a subtle
balance of various complicated relations where all organisms are related
with other creatures in the ecosystem. In 1973, Norwegian philosopher
Arne Naess first put forth the term “deep ecology” in his article titled
The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement: A Summary.
The article criticizes human-centrism that instrumentalizes nature and
the opposite term “shallow ecology” that only nurtures the wilderness
and protects biodiversity for human benefits and therefore limits nature’s
value to its use value to mankind. In response, Arne Naess proposed deep
ecological outlook that affirms the basic living rights and inherent values
of all creatures. In 1984, Arne Naess and George Sessions jointly drafted
the eight basic principles of deep ecology, which they stressed were not
rigid doctrines, but only outlines for discussion and were open to revision
and perfection by people accepting them in the broad sense. The Schumacher College in Britain opened a course on deep ecology in May 1995,
and the course takers discussed and summarized the eight basic principles
as follows:
a. The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on
Earth have value in themselves. These values are independent of the
usefulness of the non-human world for human purposes.
b. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of
these values and are also values in themselves.
c. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to
satisfy vital needs.
d. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a
substantial decrease of the human population. The flourishing of
non-human life requires such a decrease.
e. Present human interference with the non-human world is excessive,
and the situation is rapidly worsening.
f. The dominant socio-political living situation must therefore end. This
will affect basic economic, technological, and ideological structures.
The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present.
g. The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating quality
(dwelling in situations of inherent worth) rather than adhering to
an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound
awareness of the difference between big and great.
h. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation
directly or indirectly to participate in the attempt to implement the
necessary changes.
(4) Organic Marxism: From the 1970s, western Marxists, such as Andre
Gorz, criticized capitalism with ecological thinking, and others like James
O’Connor and John Foster studied and expounded ecological materialism and other thoughts by such classical writers as Marx and Engels,
C. Wang
(3) Deep ecology: Deep ecology is an environmental philosophy that emphasizes that all creatures have the right of survival and inherent values regardless of their use value to mankind, and that the natural world is a subtle
balance of various complicated relations where all organisms are related
with other creatures in the ecosystem. In 1973, Norwegian philosopher
Arne Naess first put forth the term “deep ecology” in his article titled
The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement: A Summary.
The article criticizes human-centrism that instrumentalizes nature and
the opposite term “shallow ecology” that only nurtures the wilderness
and protects biodiversity for human benefits and therefore limits nature’s
value to its use value to mankind. In response, Arne Naess proposed deep
ecological outlook that affirms the basic living rights and inherent values
of all creatures. In 1984, Arne Naess and George Sessions jointly drafted
the eight basic principles of deep ecology, which they stressed were not
rigid doctrines, but only outlines for discussion and were open to revision
and perfection by people accepting them in the broad sense. The Schumacher College in Britain opened a course on deep ecology in May 1995,
and the course takers discussed and summarized the eight basic principles
as follows:
a. The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on
Earth have value in themselves. These values are independent of the
usefulness of the non-human world for human purposes.
b. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of
these values and are also values in themselves.
c. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to
satisfy vital needs.
d. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a
substantial decrease of the human population. The flourishing of
non-human life requires such a decrease.
e. Present human interference with the non-human world is excessive,
and the situation is rapidly worsening.
f. The dominant socio-political living situation must therefore end. This
will affect basic economic, technological, and ideological structures.
The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present.
g. The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating quality
(dwelling in situations of inherent worth) rather than adhering to
an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound
awareness of the difference between big and great.
h. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation
directly or indirectly to participate in the attempt to implement the
necessary changes.
(4) Organic Marxism: From the 1970s, western Marxists, such as Andre
Gorz, criticized capitalism with ecological thinking, and others like James
O’Connor and John Foster studied and expounded ecological materialism and other thoughts by such classical writers as Marx and Engels,