the commercial development of those resources in areas under national
jurisdiction.
19
From the perspective of biodiversity, the continental shelf is known to host
diverse marine life. There are, for instance, rhodolith beds consisting of a diversity
of living organisms and spatially dynamic ecosystems. In a study published in 2016,
on the structure of Brazilian rhodolith beds, Paulo Horta describes those ecosystems
as “colorful, unattached, branching, crustose benthic marine red algae”, which
increased in size and decrease in abundance in areas with a gentle slope.
20 In
contrast, rhodoliths from narrow shelves and steep slopes decreased in size but
increased in abundance. Such rhodolith beds provide habitat for a plethora of benthic
living organisms, a function which has rendered them the fame of ecosystem
engineers.
In short, expectancy of abundant resources on the continental shelf beyond
200 nm is commonly embraced by scientists, industry consultants, decision-makers
and, consequently, international lawyers. In regard of the appropriation and extraction of those marine resources in those areas, this work has identified two different
narratives among environmental advocates and international lawyers for what is
happening: claims of an on-going “wild-west race to resources”, opposed to the
narrative of an “orderly development of marine resources”.
The first narrative has been fueled by the perception of disorder in “hot” areas,
where adjacent and opposing coasts interact with each other—a disarray which could
stem political and diplomatic tensions. A case in point is the Arctic region, where
Russian claims to secure access to natural resources of the continental shelf have
attracted the world’s attention and sounded an alarm as to the increasing use of
Machtpolitik in the region.
21 There, worries of a “race to continental shelf
resources”, as Timo Koivurova has put it,
22 or a “race for what’s left”,
23 to Michael
Klare, have taken the spotlight. Some have also mentioned, in a quite sensationalistic
manner, a “scramble for the Arctic”, a process allegedly corresponding to the world’s
last colonial scramble.
24
19 Nautilus Minerals Inc. has launched an exploration programme for the exploration of massive
sulfides in 2007. At the time of publishing, Nautilus has obtained the first mining exploitation lease
for deposits within its Solwara 1 and 2 Projects, offshore of Papua New Guinea, and has research
permits for other regions including Tonga, the Solomon Islands, and other sites in the South West
Pacific. See Gena (2013), p. 227. See also Nautilus Minerals Inc. (2016), Annual Report, Toronto, 5.
20 Horta et al. (2016), p. 121.
21 The concept of “power politics” stems from the realist school of International Relations theory,
which depicts international relations as the constant competition for absolute power capacities and
access to natural resources. One of the school’s most representative intellectuals was Hans Morgenthau. See generally Morgenthau (1948).
22 According to Koivurova, “it is important to take the ‘race to the resources’ description seriously
because it is not only the media that perceive such a development in the Arctic, many researchers do
as well”. Koivurova (2011), p. 212.
23 Klare (2012), p. 237.
24 See generally Sale and Potapov (2009).
3.1 Enlarged Coastal State Jurisdiction Over the Continental Margin
51
jurisdiction.
19
From the perspective of biodiversity, the continental shelf is known to host
diverse marine life. There are, for instance, rhodolith beds consisting of a diversity
of living organisms and spatially dynamic ecosystems. In a study published in 2016,
on the structure of Brazilian rhodolith beds, Paulo Horta describes those ecosystems
as “colorful, unattached, branching, crustose benthic marine red algae”, which
increased in size and decrease in abundance in areas with a gentle slope.
20 In
contrast, rhodoliths from narrow shelves and steep slopes decreased in size but
increased in abundance. Such rhodolith beds provide habitat for a plethora of benthic
living organisms, a function which has rendered them the fame of ecosystem
engineers.
In short, expectancy of abundant resources on the continental shelf beyond
200 nm is commonly embraced by scientists, industry consultants, decision-makers
and, consequently, international lawyers. In regard of the appropriation and extraction of those marine resources in those areas, this work has identified two different
narratives among environmental advocates and international lawyers for what is
happening: claims of an on-going “wild-west race to resources”, opposed to the
narrative of an “orderly development of marine resources”.
The first narrative has been fueled by the perception of disorder in “hot” areas,
where adjacent and opposing coasts interact with each other—a disarray which could
stem political and diplomatic tensions. A case in point is the Arctic region, where
Russian claims to secure access to natural resources of the continental shelf have
attracted the world’s attention and sounded an alarm as to the increasing use of
Machtpolitik in the region.
21 There, worries of a “race to continental shelf
resources”, as Timo Koivurova has put it,
22 or a “race for what’s left”,
23 to Michael
Klare, have taken the spotlight. Some have also mentioned, in a quite sensationalistic
manner, a “scramble for the Arctic”, a process allegedly corresponding to the world’s
last colonial scramble.
24
19 Nautilus Minerals Inc. has launched an exploration programme for the exploration of massive
sulfides in 2007. At the time of publishing, Nautilus has obtained the first mining exploitation lease
for deposits within its Solwara 1 and 2 Projects, offshore of Papua New Guinea, and has research
permits for other regions including Tonga, the Solomon Islands, and other sites in the South West
Pacific. See Gena (2013), p. 227. See also Nautilus Minerals Inc. (2016), Annual Report, Toronto, 5.
20 Horta et al. (2016), p. 121.
21 The concept of “power politics” stems from the realist school of International Relations theory,
which depicts international relations as the constant competition for absolute power capacities and
access to natural resources. One of the school’s most representative intellectuals was Hans Morgenthau. See generally Morgenthau (1948).
22 According to Koivurova, “it is important to take the ‘race to the resources’ description seriously
because it is not only the media that perceive such a development in the Arctic, many researchers do
as well”. Koivurova (2011), p. 212.
23 Klare (2012), p. 237.
24 See generally Sale and Potapov (2009).
3.1 Enlarged Coastal State Jurisdiction Over the Continental Margin
51