34
The pituitary gland may abruptly stop producing hormones, especially adrenocorticotropic hormone, which leads to low blood pressure and low blood glucose levels [55].
Pancreas Related Disorders
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes is the most prevailing endocrine disorder and characterized by a group of
disorders summarized as hyperglycemia (high blood sugar levels) [58]. Metabolic
syndromes such as diabetes are caused by an imbalance in insulin, synthesized by
the pancreatic beta cells. Islets of Langerhans are responsible for the production of
beta cells. Insulin plays a significant role in the absorption and use of glucose [59].
Abnormal beta cell function leads to a deficiency in insulin and amylin ultimately
increasing the diabetic patients’ body weight [60]. Hepatocyte nuclear factor
4-alpha (HNF4A) is accountable for pancreatic beta cell’s gene transcription, where
liver genes play a crucial role. In patients with type 2 diabetes, there is a trend of
heterogeneity, non-ketosis and non-functionality of 2–5% of beta cells [61]. Even
though mutations in the liver gene may progress to maturity-onset diabetes in
younger people, yet this is non-insulin-dependent diabetes [62]. GDM usually
occurs during pregnancy and mother as well as newborn are at high risk [63].
Clinically, diabetes is characterized by high levels of blood sugar and imbalances
in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Untreated diabetes can cause hyperglycemia.
For the diagnosis of diabetes, fasting blood glucose >140 mg/dL (>7.7 mmol/L) or
random blood glucose levels >200 mg/dL (>11.1 mmol/L) are threshold values.
Glycated hemoglobin’s % age (also known as glycosylated hemoglobin or HbA1c)
is usually used to measure diabetes control in patients because this percentage is
related to the average blood glucose level within 3 months. Poor long-term glycemic control often causes microvascular complications in various organs of the body
including kidneys, eyes, heart, and nervous system. Diabetic patients are always at
a higher risk of coronary heart disease and infection complications [64].
Signs and Symptoms
Recently diabetes is being classified on the basis of pathological processes involved
in the insulin secretion and resistance. There are three main types of diabetes, i.e.,
type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Type 1
diabetes and type 2 diabetes may arise at any age. Type 1 diabetes patients need
insulin regularly, while type 2 diabetes patients do not need daily insulin. Gestational
diabetes is a state in which pregnant women have elevated blood sugar and may
think that there may be no diabetes. Sometimes, it continues even after childbirth.
There is a great risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease development in
females having a history of GDM [65]. In type 2 diabetes, insulin antagonism can
A. Ahsan et al.
The pituitary gland may abruptly stop producing hormones, especially adrenocorticotropic hormone, which leads to low blood pressure and low blood glucose levels [55].
Pancreas Related Disorders
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes is the most prevailing endocrine disorder and characterized by a group of
disorders summarized as hyperglycemia (high blood sugar levels) [58]. Metabolic
syndromes such as diabetes are caused by an imbalance in insulin, synthesized by
the pancreatic beta cells. Islets of Langerhans are responsible for the production of
beta cells. Insulin plays a significant role in the absorption and use of glucose [59].
Abnormal beta cell function leads to a deficiency in insulin and amylin ultimately
increasing the diabetic patients’ body weight [60]. Hepatocyte nuclear factor
4-alpha (HNF4A) is accountable for pancreatic beta cell’s gene transcription, where
liver genes play a crucial role. In patients with type 2 diabetes, there is a trend of
heterogeneity, non-ketosis and non-functionality of 2–5% of beta cells [61]. Even
though mutations in the liver gene may progress to maturity-onset diabetes in
younger people, yet this is non-insulin-dependent diabetes [62]. GDM usually
occurs during pregnancy and mother as well as newborn are at high risk [63].
Clinically, diabetes is characterized by high levels of blood sugar and imbalances
in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Untreated diabetes can cause hyperglycemia.
For the diagnosis of diabetes, fasting blood glucose >140 mg/dL (>7.7 mmol/L) or
random blood glucose levels >200 mg/dL (>11.1 mmol/L) are threshold values.
Glycated hemoglobin’s % age (also known as glycosylated hemoglobin or HbA1c)
is usually used to measure diabetes control in patients because this percentage is
related to the average blood glucose level within 3 months. Poor long-term glycemic control often causes microvascular complications in various organs of the body
including kidneys, eyes, heart, and nervous system. Diabetic patients are always at
a higher risk of coronary heart disease and infection complications [64].
Signs and Symptoms
Recently diabetes is being classified on the basis of pathological processes involved
in the insulin secretion and resistance. There are three main types of diabetes, i.e.,
type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Type 1
diabetes and type 2 diabetes may arise at any age. Type 1 diabetes patients need
insulin regularly, while type 2 diabetes patients do not need daily insulin. Gestational
diabetes is a state in which pregnant women have elevated blood sugar and may
think that there may be no diabetes. Sometimes, it continues even after childbirth.
There is a great risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease development in
females having a history of GDM [65]. In type 2 diabetes, insulin antagonism can
A. Ahsan et al.