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number of cases are encountering severe illness and hence dying [19]. Antibiotics,
thus, present an alarming threat to much of healthcare as we know it [20].
Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance is becoming a challenging problem throughout the world
which results in a high level of morbidity and mortality [21]. Antibiotic resistance
is associated with overuse and/or misuse antibiotics and thus it makes common
infections and/or life-threatening infection difficult or even impossible to treat [22,
23]. Antibiotic resistance can be defined as a decreased ability of an antibiotic in
killing or inhibiting the growth or development of microorganisms [24]. Antibiotic
resistance can be generated on two bases, clinically and microbiologically. Clinical
resistance is an antimicrobial activity which is correlated with high level of therapeutic failure, for example, treating a microorganism with a drug to which that
microorganism has tested resistance [20]. The second type microbiological resistance occurs due to the genetically developed resistance mechanism, maybe mutated
or acquired, resulting in a microorganism resistant to antibiotics [20]. Resistance to
some important microorganisms to common antibiotics and especially origination
of multidrug-resistant bacteria are widening at an alarming rate [21]. Antibiotic
resistance was discovered when benzylpenicillin was introduced and for the first
time it was noted in 1940 in E. coli [25].
Mechanism of Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance may be acquired or inherent. Acquired resistance develops
when a specific bacteria gain the genes which encode a resistance mechanism
through mutation of genes or due to the transfer of genetic material from other bacteria, of the same or of different species [20]. The genes of antibiotic resistance are
carried on the mobile genetic elements, which may be either plasmids (circular molecules of double-stranded DNA independent of the chromosome) or maybe transposons (that are jumping genes, a mobile sequence of DNA moveable to different
positions in the genome). These transfers can occur in many ways as conjugation,
transduction, or transformation [20]. Bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics
through multiple mechanisms including (a) permeability changes in the cell wall of
bacteria preventing antibiotic’s access to the targeted sites, (b) antibiotic’s active
efflux from the microbial cell, (c) antibiotic’s enzymatic modifications, (d) degradation of antibiotics, (e) development of alternate metabolic pathways other than those
inhibited by drugs, (f) modification of the targets of antibiotics, and (g) target
enzyme’s overproduction [18].
8 Antibiotic Resistance in EDCs-Induced Metabolic Disorders
number of cases are encountering severe illness and hence dying [19]. Antibiotics,
thus, present an alarming threat to much of healthcare as we know it [20].
Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance is becoming a challenging problem throughout the world
which results in a high level of morbidity and mortality [21]. Antibiotic resistance
is associated with overuse and/or misuse antibiotics and thus it makes common
infections and/or life-threatening infection difficult or even impossible to treat [22,
23]. Antibiotic resistance can be defined as a decreased ability of an antibiotic in
killing or inhibiting the growth or development of microorganisms [24]. Antibiotic
resistance can be generated on two bases, clinically and microbiologically. Clinical
resistance is an antimicrobial activity which is correlated with high level of therapeutic failure, for example, treating a microorganism with a drug to which that
microorganism has tested resistance [20]. The second type microbiological resistance occurs due to the genetically developed resistance mechanism, maybe mutated
or acquired, resulting in a microorganism resistant to antibiotics [20]. Resistance to
some important microorganisms to common antibiotics and especially origination
of multidrug-resistant bacteria are widening at an alarming rate [21]. Antibiotic
resistance was discovered when benzylpenicillin was introduced and for the first
time it was noted in 1940 in E. coli [25].
Mechanism of Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance may be acquired or inherent. Acquired resistance develops
when a specific bacteria gain the genes which encode a resistance mechanism
through mutation of genes or due to the transfer of genetic material from other bacteria, of the same or of different species [20]. The genes of antibiotic resistance are
carried on the mobile genetic elements, which may be either plasmids (circular molecules of double-stranded DNA independent of the chromosome) or maybe transposons (that are jumping genes, a mobile sequence of DNA moveable to different
positions in the genome). These transfers can occur in many ways as conjugation,
transduction, or transformation [20]. Bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics
through multiple mechanisms including (a) permeability changes in the cell wall of
bacteria preventing antibiotic’s access to the targeted sites, (b) antibiotic’s active
efflux from the microbial cell, (c) antibiotic’s enzymatic modifications, (d) degradation of antibiotics, (e) development of alternate metabolic pathways other than those
inhibited by drugs, (f) modification of the targets of antibiotics, and (g) target
enzyme’s overproduction [18].
8 Antibiotic Resistance in EDCs-Induced Metabolic Disorders