2
Soil-Forming Factors of the Great Lakes
Coastal Zone
2.1
General
Soils result from the interaction of climate, organisms
(plants, animals, and humans), relief (topography), parent
material, and time—all of which have been influenced by
humankind. Each of these factors varies considerably across
the Great Lakes region, which extends 1,560 km (935 miles)
west to east, 760 km (455 miles) north to south, and has a
coastal zone elevation range of 74–305 m (243–1,000 ft.).
2.2
Climate
There are considerable climate variations not only due to
latitude and longitude but also to the lakes themselves. The
Great Lakes act as heat sinks and moderate the regional
temperatures, with cooler temperatures in the summer and
milder temperatures in the winter. In the Great Lakes Coastal
Zone (GLCZ), the mean annual air temperature ranges
between 0 and 5 °C in the north and 5–10 °C in the south.
The mean annual precipitation ranges between 400 and
800 mm throughout most of the basin, but is between 800
and 1,200 mm along southern Lakes Michigan, Erie, and
Ontario. The Great Lakes receive large amounts of snow,
particularly in the snow-belt regions (Fig. 2.1). Snowfall
exceeds 500 cm/year on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Lake
Superior and is around 380 cm/year on the southeastern
shores of the other four Great Lakes.
The plant hardiness zone is 3 along the north shore of
Lake Superior, 4 along the west and south shore of Lake
Superior and the north shore of Lake Huron, and 5 and 6
around Lakes Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (Fig. 2.2). The
effect of the large water bodies on regional climate is readily
visible in the sharp changes in plant hardiness zone with
proximity to the lakes. Hinkel and Nelson (2012) reported
near-shore sites along Lake Superior to be 1–2 °C cooler
than sites 5 km inland in spring and summer and 1 °C
warmer in winter. The mean daily temperature differed by as
much as 11 °C among 26–30 study sites, but the average
difference was 2.5–3.0 °C.
2.3
Vegetation
There are four broad terrestrial provinces in the Great Lakes
region (Fig. 2.3). The Boreal Forest is limited to the north
shore of Lake Superior and includes forest cover types
comprised predominantly of white spruce (Picea glauca),
black spruce (P. mariana), balsam fir (Abies balsamifera),
jack pine (Pinus banksiana), paper birch (Betula papyrifera),
and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) (Fig. 2.4a). The
Laurentian Mixed (Great Lakes-St. Lawrence) Forest
encompasses the shores of southern Lake Superior, the
northern half of Lake Michigan, and all but the southern tip
of Lake Huron. The mixed forest cover types are composed
of red pine (Pinus resinosa), eastern white pine (P. strobus),
eastern hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis), yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis), maples (Acer spp.), and oaks (Quercus spp.)
(Fig. 2.4b). The Midwest Broadleaf (Deciduous; Carolinian)
Forest occurs along the shores of southern Lake Michigan
and Huron and the shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario shores;
it is comprised of beech (Fagus grandifolia), maples (Acer
spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), and oaks (Quercus spp.)
(Fig. 2.4c). A fourth province is the Prairie Parkland which
nearly reaches the southern shore of Lake Michigan
(Fig. 2.4d). The areas with a yellow pattern are cultivated.
From an analysis of the soil series descriptions, the
dominant vegetation types in the GLCZ are temperate mixed
coniferous and broad-leaved forest (43%) and temperate
broad-leaved forest (30%), followed by lowland mixed forest (21%), lowland shrubs (2.5%), prairie (1.6%), and oakor pine-savanna (1.4%) (Fig. 2.5).
The vegetation zones of the upper Great Lakes region
have not remained stable since recession of the glaciers.
Rather they have responded to natural and human-caused
changes in the climate. Many of these changes have occurred
as a result of shifts in the tension zone, a zone reflecting a
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
J. G. Bockheim, Soils of the Laurentian Great Lakes, USA and Canada,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52425-8_2
17
Soil-Forming Factors of the Great Lakes
Coastal Zone
2.1
General
Soils result from the interaction of climate, organisms
(plants, animals, and humans), relief (topography), parent
material, and time—all of which have been influenced by
humankind. Each of these factors varies considerably across
the Great Lakes region, which extends 1,560 km (935 miles)
west to east, 760 km (455 miles) north to south, and has a
coastal zone elevation range of 74–305 m (243–1,000 ft.).
2.2
Climate
There are considerable climate variations not only due to
latitude and longitude but also to the lakes themselves. The
Great Lakes act as heat sinks and moderate the regional
temperatures, with cooler temperatures in the summer and
milder temperatures in the winter. In the Great Lakes Coastal
Zone (GLCZ), the mean annual air temperature ranges
between 0 and 5 °C in the north and 5–10 °C in the south.
The mean annual precipitation ranges between 400 and
800 mm throughout most of the basin, but is between 800
and 1,200 mm along southern Lakes Michigan, Erie, and
Ontario. The Great Lakes receive large amounts of snow,
particularly in the snow-belt regions (Fig. 2.1). Snowfall
exceeds 500 cm/year on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Lake
Superior and is around 380 cm/year on the southeastern
shores of the other four Great Lakes.
The plant hardiness zone is 3 along the north shore of
Lake Superior, 4 along the west and south shore of Lake
Superior and the north shore of Lake Huron, and 5 and 6
around Lakes Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (Fig. 2.2). The
effect of the large water bodies on regional climate is readily
visible in the sharp changes in plant hardiness zone with
proximity to the lakes. Hinkel and Nelson (2012) reported
near-shore sites along Lake Superior to be 1–2 °C cooler
than sites 5 km inland in spring and summer and 1 °C
warmer in winter. The mean daily temperature differed by as
much as 11 °C among 26–30 study sites, but the average
difference was 2.5–3.0 °C.
2.3
Vegetation
There are four broad terrestrial provinces in the Great Lakes
region (Fig. 2.3). The Boreal Forest is limited to the north
shore of Lake Superior and includes forest cover types
comprised predominantly of white spruce (Picea glauca),
black spruce (P. mariana), balsam fir (Abies balsamifera),
jack pine (Pinus banksiana), paper birch (Betula papyrifera),
and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) (Fig. 2.4a). The
Laurentian Mixed (Great Lakes-St. Lawrence) Forest
encompasses the shores of southern Lake Superior, the
northern half of Lake Michigan, and all but the southern tip
of Lake Huron. The mixed forest cover types are composed
of red pine (Pinus resinosa), eastern white pine (P. strobus),
eastern hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis), yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis), maples (Acer spp.), and oaks (Quercus spp.)
(Fig. 2.4b). The Midwest Broadleaf (Deciduous; Carolinian)
Forest occurs along the shores of southern Lake Michigan
and Huron and the shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario shores;
it is comprised of beech (Fagus grandifolia), maples (Acer
spp.), hickories (Carya spp.), and oaks (Quercus spp.)
(Fig. 2.4c). A fourth province is the Prairie Parkland which
nearly reaches the southern shore of Lake Michigan
(Fig. 2.4d). The areas with a yellow pattern are cultivated.
From an analysis of the soil series descriptions, the
dominant vegetation types in the GLCZ are temperate mixed
coniferous and broad-leaved forest (43%) and temperate
broad-leaved forest (30%), followed by lowland mixed forest (21%), lowland shrubs (2.5%), prairie (1.6%), and oakor pine-savanna (1.4%) (Fig. 2.5).
The vegetation zones of the upper Great Lakes region
have not remained stable since recession of the glaciers.
Rather they have responded to natural and human-caused
changes in the climate. Many of these changes have occurred
as a result of shifts in the tension zone, a zone reflecting a
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
J. G. Bockheim, Soils of the Laurentian Great Lakes, USA and Canada,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52425-8_2
17