194
S. Namany and T. Al-Ansari
and inadequate soil quality. Greenhouses are an alternative cultivation technology
that have gained a substantial importance over the last few years, attributed to their
capability to accommodate optimal growing conditions for crops such that cultivation is feasible throughout the year, even under the most severe climates [13]. The
inherent interlinkages between resources between the food system and the energy
and water systems are collectively advantageous for the three resources sectors as
they represent an opportunity for fruitful cooperation. However, such interdependencies can also be the impetus for various tradeoffs and competing objectives,
which can affect the performance of the food system and hence obstruct targets, for
instance food security. Naturally, multi-sectoral operations which are a consequence
of interlinkages between resources imply the participation and cooperation between
multiple stakeholders, which in most cases demonstrate divergent objectives and
targets. Multi-stakeholders accompanied with their multiple objectives induce intersectoral and intra-sectoral competitions that perturb decision-making within the food
system. An example of intersectoral competition is manifested within competition for
water resources between the food system which requires irrigation water to maximise
its crops production, and the energy sector that requires water for power generation
in power plants [14]. As for the intra-sectoral competition within the food sector, it
is visible in the end use of the food products. Food is generally produced to feed
people; however, in some instances, agricultural products can be redirected towards
the production of electricity, in the form of biomass feedstock used to generate
power by means of gasification. This multiple usage of agricultural products can be
problematic for the food sector if objectives are not balanced amongst stakeholders
[15].
In addition to the decision-making challenges that stem from the contribution of
the energy and water systems in the functioning of the food sector, the economy
within which the three sectors are operating also imposes a range of rules and policies that can restrict some processes and inhibit the achievement of desired targets
within resource sub-systems. Carbon pricing, which is a tax imposed by several
governments to minimise greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with industrial activities as means to address climate change, is a policy that represents a burden
for several sectors, including those directly and indirectly related to energy, water and
food systems [16]. While the ultimate aim of these economic sectors is to maximise
their profit and reduce their expenses, the carbon tax is an added financial burden
to operations. To avoid paying this tax, some industries invest in alternative environmentally friendly technologies that generate less GHGs, such as solar energy or
biomass-based energy production for the energy sector [17], which usually require
large capital investments. In the case of carbon pricing, the extra costs associated
with emissions generated or technologies deployed imply a reform in the decisionmaking scheme of these sectors in order to balance the sector’s economic objective
and the government environmental policy. Another example illustrating the impact
of the involvement of multiple stakeholders on the performance of resources is the
land constraint imposed by several governments regarding land usage. Such regulations can be a cause for tension between sectors, as it can hinder the productivity of
a sector at the expense of another. With the need to reduce the environmental burden
S. Namany and T. Al-Ansari
and inadequate soil quality. Greenhouses are an alternative cultivation technology
that have gained a substantial importance over the last few years, attributed to their
capability to accommodate optimal growing conditions for crops such that cultivation is feasible throughout the year, even under the most severe climates [13]. The
inherent interlinkages between resources between the food system and the energy
and water systems are collectively advantageous for the three resources sectors as
they represent an opportunity for fruitful cooperation. However, such interdependencies can also be the impetus for various tradeoffs and competing objectives,
which can affect the performance of the food system and hence obstruct targets, for
instance food security. Naturally, multi-sectoral operations which are a consequence
of interlinkages between resources imply the participation and cooperation between
multiple stakeholders, which in most cases demonstrate divergent objectives and
targets. Multi-stakeholders accompanied with their multiple objectives induce intersectoral and intra-sectoral competitions that perturb decision-making within the food
system. An example of intersectoral competition is manifested within competition for
water resources between the food system which requires irrigation water to maximise
its crops production, and the energy sector that requires water for power generation
in power plants [14]. As for the intra-sectoral competition within the food sector, it
is visible in the end use of the food products. Food is generally produced to feed
people; however, in some instances, agricultural products can be redirected towards
the production of electricity, in the form of biomass feedstock used to generate
power by means of gasification. This multiple usage of agricultural products can be
problematic for the food sector if objectives are not balanced amongst stakeholders
[15].
In addition to the decision-making challenges that stem from the contribution of
the energy and water systems in the functioning of the food sector, the economy
within which the three sectors are operating also imposes a range of rules and policies that can restrict some processes and inhibit the achievement of desired targets
within resource sub-systems. Carbon pricing, which is a tax imposed by several
governments to minimise greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with industrial activities as means to address climate change, is a policy that represents a burden
for several sectors, including those directly and indirectly related to energy, water and
food systems [16]. While the ultimate aim of these economic sectors is to maximise
their profit and reduce their expenses, the carbon tax is an added financial burden
to operations. To avoid paying this tax, some industries invest in alternative environmentally friendly technologies that generate less GHGs, such as solar energy or
biomass-based energy production for the energy sector [17], which usually require
large capital investments. In the case of carbon pricing, the extra costs associated
with emissions generated or technologies deployed imply a reform in the decisionmaking scheme of these sectors in order to balance the sector’s economic objective
and the government environmental policy. Another example illustrating the impact
of the involvement of multiple stakeholders on the performance of resources is the
land constraint imposed by several governments regarding land usage. Such regulations can be a cause for tension between sectors, as it can hinder the productivity of
a sector at the expense of another. With the need to reduce the environmental burden