providing alternative habitats for endangered species. Soil,
soil animals, and vegetation are salvaged by lifting soil and
plants intact, with minimum disturbance. Transportation can
then be undertaken, by large specialist machinery, to a new
site. The process may also involve temporary storage.
Relocation is costly but the major benefits are rapid
ecosystem recovery and minimised loss of ecosystem values.
When soil is relocated, there are risks that contaminants,
weeds, or pests may be transported in the soil. Weeds and
pests can easily be transferred in soil and require eradication,
thus creating additional costs. For instance, roadside soils
have been used to rehabilitate new areas of disturbance with
consequent spread of gorse, broom, and pasture grasses. In
many natural areas there is a tension between soil fertility
and competitiveness of desired native plants against pasture
species or gorse. Placement of relocated fertile soil material
into a native area of lower fertility can give undesirable
weeds a competitive advantage to establish a foothold and
invade native areas.
The large cost involved in constructing Anthropic Soils
means it is important to manage the process for best possible
outcomes as such work is generally a long-term investment.
Further Reading
Beecroft FG, Brash DW (1983) Field trial investigation of horticultural
response on relocated soil in a semi-arid environment, Central
Otago, New Zealand. DSIR Soil Bureau District Office Report
No. DN 14
Best E (1924) The Maori as he was: a brief account of Maori life as it
was in pre-European days. NZ Board of Science and Art No. 4.
Dominion Museum, Wellington. 272 p
Best E (1925) Māori agriculture: The cultivated food plants of the
natives of New Zealand, with some account of native methods of
agriculture, its ritual and origin myths. Dominion Museum Bulletin
No. 9. 172 p
Bruce JG (1979) Soils of Hamilton City, North Island, NZ. NZ Soil
Survey report 31, 65 p + map
Bruce JG (1984) Soils of the Gore-Waikaka District, South Island. New
Zealand. NZ Soil Survey Report 74, 86p
Buller Community Development Co. Ltd, undated. Land development
by flipping and humping and hollowing, 40 p. http://maxa.maf.govt.
nz/sff/about-projects/search/01-231/land-development-booklet.pdf.
Accessed April 2018
Clarke A (1977) Maori modified soils of the upper Waikato. N Z
Archaeol Assoc Newslett 20:204–222
Denham T (2013) Ancient and historic dispersals of sweet potato in
Oceania. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 110:1982–1983
Ell G (1985) Shadows on the land: signs from the Māori Past. N.Z.
Bush Press, Auckland, New Zealand, 112p
Grange LI, Taylor NH, Sutherland CF et al (1939) Soils. In: Soils and
agriculture of part of Waipa County. DSIR Bulletin No. 76. pp 30–63
Gumbley W, Laumea M (2019) Archaeological investigation report:
pre-European Maori horticultural site S15/465. Heritage New
Zealand Authority 2018/133, 84p
Gumbley W, Higham TFG, Lowe DJ (2004) Prehistoric horticultural
adaptation of soils in the middle Waikato Basin: review and
evidence from S14/201 and S14/185, Hamilton. NZ J Archaeol
25:5–30
Hewitt AE (2012) New Zealand Soil Classification. 3rd edn, Landcare
Research Science Series No. 1. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln,
New Zealand
Higham TFG, Gumbley WJ (2001) Early preserved Polynesian kumara
cultivations in New Zealand. Antiquity 75:511–512
Joblin MH (2010) Environmental assessment of the effects of leachate
irrigation and seepage from the Paokahu Landfill, Gisborne, New
Zealand. MSc thesis, University of Waikato, New Zealand, 222 p
Laubscher N (2014) Improvement in soil water availability in pastures
by excavating and mixing buried soil horizons from multi-layered
Pumice Soils (Vitrands) at Galatea, central North Island, New
Zealand. MSc thesis, University of Waikato, New Zealand, 152p
McCraw JD (2011) The wandering river—landforms and geological
history of the Hamilton Basin. Geoscience Society of New Zealand
Guidebook 16. 88 p
McFadgen BG (1980) Maori plaggen soils in New Zealand, their origin
and properties. J Royal Soc NZ 10:3–18
New Zealand Cricket (2017) Pitch preparation—the basic fundamentals. V1.0. 82p. https://www.nzc.nz/media/10212/nzc_pitch-prep_
pages_digital_1608.pdf on 2 March 2020
Puke WT (2021) Conception, construction, and cultural significance of
Te Parapara garden in Hamilton, Aotearoa New Zealand. J NZ Pac
Stud 9(1) (in press)
Rossiter DG (2007) Classification of urban and industrial soils in the
World Reference Base for Soil Resources. J Soils Sediments 7
(2):96–100
Rogers D, Bartlet R, Simcock R et al (2001) Benefits of vegetation
direct transfer as an innovative mine rehabilitation tool. In:
Nichils O, Viluclcis N (eds) Proceedings of the Australian mine
rehabilitation workshop—achieving rehabilitation success. Adelaide, 17–19 Aug. 2011. JK Tech SMI Technology Transfer,
Indooroopilly, Queensland, pp 285–302
Singleton PL (1988) Cultivation and soil modification by the early
Maori in the Waikato. N Z Soil News 36:49–57
Soil Survey Staff (2014) Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 12th edn. USDA
Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, DC, 362 p
Soil Survey Staff (2015) Illustrated guide to Soil Taxonomy, version 2. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service,
National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska. https://www.nrcs.usda.
gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/taxonomy/?cid=nrcs142p2_
053580. Accessed 2 Mar 2020
Taylor NH (1958) Soil science and prehistory. N Z Sci Rev 16:71–79
Waterhouse BR, Adair KL, Boyer S et al (2014) Advanced mine
restoration protocols facilitate early recovery of soil microbial
biomass, activity and functional diversity. Basic Appl Ecol 15
(7):599–606
World Reference Base (2015 update); http://www.fao.org/3/i3794en/
I3794en.pdf. Accessed 2 Mar 2020
Yen D (1963) The New Zealand kumara or sweet potato. Econ Bot
17:31–41
3.7 Use and Management of Anthropic Soils
55
soil animals, and vegetation are salvaged by lifting soil and
plants intact, with minimum disturbance. Transportation can
then be undertaken, by large specialist machinery, to a new
site. The process may also involve temporary storage.
Relocation is costly but the major benefits are rapid
ecosystem recovery and minimised loss of ecosystem values.
When soil is relocated, there are risks that contaminants,
weeds, or pests may be transported in the soil. Weeds and
pests can easily be transferred in soil and require eradication,
thus creating additional costs. For instance, roadside soils
have been used to rehabilitate new areas of disturbance with
consequent spread of gorse, broom, and pasture grasses. In
many natural areas there is a tension between soil fertility
and competitiveness of desired native plants against pasture
species or gorse. Placement of relocated fertile soil material
into a native area of lower fertility can give undesirable
weeds a competitive advantage to establish a foothold and
invade native areas.
The large cost involved in constructing Anthropic Soils
means it is important to manage the process for best possible
outcomes as such work is generally a long-term investment.
Further Reading
Beecroft FG, Brash DW (1983) Field trial investigation of horticultural
response on relocated soil in a semi-arid environment, Central
Otago, New Zealand. DSIR Soil Bureau District Office Report
No. DN 14
Best E (1924) The Maori as he was: a brief account of Maori life as it
was in pre-European days. NZ Board of Science and Art No. 4.
Dominion Museum, Wellington. 272 p
Best E (1925) Māori agriculture: The cultivated food plants of the
natives of New Zealand, with some account of native methods of
agriculture, its ritual and origin myths. Dominion Museum Bulletin
No. 9. 172 p
Bruce JG (1979) Soils of Hamilton City, North Island, NZ. NZ Soil
Survey report 31, 65 p + map
Bruce JG (1984) Soils of the Gore-Waikaka District, South Island. New
Zealand. NZ Soil Survey Report 74, 86p
Buller Community Development Co. Ltd, undated. Land development
by flipping and humping and hollowing, 40 p. http://maxa.maf.govt.
nz/sff/about-projects/search/01-231/land-development-booklet.pdf.
Accessed April 2018
Clarke A (1977) Maori modified soils of the upper Waikato. N Z
Archaeol Assoc Newslett 20:204–222
Denham T (2013) Ancient and historic dispersals of sweet potato in
Oceania. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 110:1982–1983
Ell G (1985) Shadows on the land: signs from the Māori Past. N.Z.
Bush Press, Auckland, New Zealand, 112p
Grange LI, Taylor NH, Sutherland CF et al (1939) Soils. In: Soils and
agriculture of part of Waipa County. DSIR Bulletin No. 76. pp 30–63
Gumbley W, Laumea M (2019) Archaeological investigation report:
pre-European Maori horticultural site S15/465. Heritage New
Zealand Authority 2018/133, 84p
Gumbley W, Higham TFG, Lowe DJ (2004) Prehistoric horticultural
adaptation of soils in the middle Waikato Basin: review and
evidence from S14/201 and S14/185, Hamilton. NZ J Archaeol
25:5–30
Hewitt AE (2012) New Zealand Soil Classification. 3rd edn, Landcare
Research Science Series No. 1. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln,
New Zealand
Higham TFG, Gumbley WJ (2001) Early preserved Polynesian kumara
cultivations in New Zealand. Antiquity 75:511–512
Joblin MH (2010) Environmental assessment of the effects of leachate
irrigation and seepage from the Paokahu Landfill, Gisborne, New
Zealand. MSc thesis, University of Waikato, New Zealand, 222 p
Laubscher N (2014) Improvement in soil water availability in pastures
by excavating and mixing buried soil horizons from multi-layered
Pumice Soils (Vitrands) at Galatea, central North Island, New
Zealand. MSc thesis, University of Waikato, New Zealand, 152p
McCraw JD (2011) The wandering river—landforms and geological
history of the Hamilton Basin. Geoscience Society of New Zealand
Guidebook 16. 88 p
McFadgen BG (1980) Maori plaggen soils in New Zealand, their origin
and properties. J Royal Soc NZ 10:3–18
New Zealand Cricket (2017) Pitch preparation—the basic fundamentals. V1.0. 82p. https://www.nzc.nz/media/10212/nzc_pitch-prep_
pages_digital_1608.pdf on 2 March 2020
Puke WT (2021) Conception, construction, and cultural significance of
Te Parapara garden in Hamilton, Aotearoa New Zealand. J NZ Pac
Stud 9(1) (in press)
Rossiter DG (2007) Classification of urban and industrial soils in the
World Reference Base for Soil Resources. J Soils Sediments 7
(2):96–100
Rogers D, Bartlet R, Simcock R et al (2001) Benefits of vegetation
direct transfer as an innovative mine rehabilitation tool. In:
Nichils O, Viluclcis N (eds) Proceedings of the Australian mine
rehabilitation workshop—achieving rehabilitation success. Adelaide, 17–19 Aug. 2011. JK Tech SMI Technology Transfer,
Indooroopilly, Queensland, pp 285–302
Singleton PL (1988) Cultivation and soil modification by the early
Maori in the Waikato. N Z Soil News 36:49–57
Soil Survey Staff (2014) Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 12th edn. USDA
Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, DC, 362 p
Soil Survey Staff (2015) Illustrated guide to Soil Taxonomy, version 2. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service,
National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska. https://www.nrcs.usda.
gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/taxonomy/?cid=nrcs142p2_
053580. Accessed 2 Mar 2020
Taylor NH (1958) Soil science and prehistory. N Z Sci Rev 16:71–79
Waterhouse BR, Adair KL, Boyer S et al (2014) Advanced mine
restoration protocols facilitate early recovery of soil microbial
biomass, activity and functional diversity. Basic Appl Ecol 15
(7):599–606
World Reference Base (2015 update); http://www.fao.org/3/i3794en/
I3794en.pdf. Accessed 2 Mar 2020
Yen D (1963) The New Zealand kumara or sweet potato. Econ Bot
17:31–41
3.7 Use and Management of Anthropic Soils
55