4
1 Introduction
6. A. Cammi, V. Di Marcello, L. Luzzi, V. Memoli, M.E. Ricotti, A multi-physics modelling
approach to the dynamics of Molten Salt Reactors. Ann. Nucl. Energy 38, 1356–1372 (2011)
7. G.Z. Chen, D.J. Fray, T.W. Farthing, Direct electrochemical reduction of titanium dioxide to
titanium in molten calcium chloride. Nature 407, 361–364 (2000)
8. E.Y. Choi, S.M. Jeong, Electrochemical processing of spent nuclear fuels: An overview of
oxide reduction in pyroprocessing technology. Prog. Nat. Sci. Mater. Int. 25, 572–582 (2015)
9. W.K. Hsu, J.P. Hare, M. Terrones, H.W. Kroto, D.R.M. Walton, P.J.F. Harris, Condensed-phase
nanotubes. Nature 377, 687 (1995)
10. A.T. Dimitrov, G.Z. Chen, I.A. Kinloch, D.J. Fray, A feasibility study of scaling-up the
electrolytic production of carbon nanotubes in molten salts. Electrochim. Acta 48, 91–102
(2002)
11. Q. Xu, C. Schwandt, G.Z. Chen, D.J. Fray, Electrochemical investigation of lithium intercalation into graphite from molten lithium chloride. J. Electroanal. Chem. 530, 16–22
(2002)
12. Q. Xu, C. Schwandt, D.J. Fray, Electrochemical investigation of lithium and tin reduction at a
graphite cathode in molten chlorides. J. Electroanal. Chem. 562, 15–21 (2004)
13. J. Sychev, N.V. Borisenko, G. Kaptay, K.B. Kushkhov, Intercalation of sodium and lithium into
graphite as a first stage in an electrochemical method for producing carbon nanotubes. Russ.
J. Electrochem. 41, 956–963 (2005)
14. J. Sytchev, G. Kaptay, Influence of current density on the erosion of a graphite cathode and
electrolytic formation of carbon nanotubes in molten NaCl and LiCl. Electrochim. Acta 54,
6725–6731 (2009)
15. A.R. Kamali, D.J. Fray, Towards large scale preparation of carbon nanostructures in molten
LiCl. Carbon 77, 835–845 (2014)
16. M. Fujimoto, N. Yoshinaga, K. Ueno, Li-ion Secondary Batteries, Japanese Patent 3,229,635,
1991
17. R. Fong, U. von Sacken, J.R. Dahn, Studies of lithium intercalation into carbons using
nonaqueous electrochemical cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 137, 2009–2013 (1990)
18. K. Xie, A.R. Kamali, Electro-reduction of hematite using water as the redox mediator. Green
Chemistry, Green Chem. 21, 198–204 (2019)
19. A.R. Kamali, D.J. Fray, Large-scale preparation of graphene by high temperature diffusion of
hydrogen in graphite. Nanoscale 7, 11310–11320 (2015)
20. A.R. Kamali, Eco-friendly production of high quality low cost graphene and its application in
lithium ion batteries. Green Chem. 18, 1952–1964 (2016)
21. A.R. Kamali, Scalable fabrication of highly conductive 3D graphene by electrochemical exfoliation of graphite in molten NaCl under Ar/H 2 atmosphere. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 52, 18–27
(2017)
22. H.K. Kim, A.R. Kamali, K.C. Roh, K.B. Kim, D.J. Fray, Dual coexisting interconnected
graphene nanostructures for high performance supercapacitor applications. Energy Environ.
Sci. 9, 2249–2256 (2016)
23. A.R. Kamali, H.K. Kim, K.B. Kim, R.V. Kumar, D.J. Fray, Large scale green production of
ultra-high capacity anode consisting of graphene encapsulated silicon nanoparticles. J. Mater.
Chem. A 5, 19126–19135 (2017)
24. A.R. Kamali, J. Feighan, D.J. Fray, Towards large scale preparation of graphene in molten salts
and its use in the fabrication of highly toughened alumina ceramics. Faraday Discuss. 190,
451–470 (2016)
25. L. Labiadh, A.R. Kamali, Unpublished work
26. A.R. Kamali, D.J. Fray, Preparation of nanodiamonds from carbon nanoparticles at atmospheric
pressure. Chem. Commun. 51, 5594–5597 (2015)
27. W. Weng, L. Tang, W. Xiao, Capture and electro-splitting of CO 2 in molten salts. J. Energy
Chem. 28, 128–143 (2019)
28. A.R. Kamali, Nanocatalytic conversion of CO 2 into nanodiamonds. Carbon 123, 205–215
(2017)
29. A.R. Kamali, J. Yang, Q. Sun, Molten salt conversion of polyethylene terephthalate waste into
graphene nanostructures with high surface area and ultra-high electrical conductivity. Appl.
Surf. Sci. 476, 539–551 (2019)
1 Introduction
6. A. Cammi, V. Di Marcello, L. Luzzi, V. Memoli, M.E. Ricotti, A multi-physics modelling
approach to the dynamics of Molten Salt Reactors. Ann. Nucl. Energy 38, 1356–1372 (2011)
7. G.Z. Chen, D.J. Fray, T.W. Farthing, Direct electrochemical reduction of titanium dioxide to
titanium in molten calcium chloride. Nature 407, 361–364 (2000)
8. E.Y. Choi, S.M. Jeong, Electrochemical processing of spent nuclear fuels: An overview of
oxide reduction in pyroprocessing technology. Prog. Nat. Sci. Mater. Int. 25, 572–582 (2015)
9. W.K. Hsu, J.P. Hare, M. Terrones, H.W. Kroto, D.R.M. Walton, P.J.F. Harris, Condensed-phase
nanotubes. Nature 377, 687 (1995)
10. A.T. Dimitrov, G.Z. Chen, I.A. Kinloch, D.J. Fray, A feasibility study of scaling-up the
electrolytic production of carbon nanotubes in molten salts. Electrochim. Acta 48, 91–102
(2002)
11. Q. Xu, C. Schwandt, G.Z. Chen, D.J. Fray, Electrochemical investigation of lithium intercalation into graphite from molten lithium chloride. J. Electroanal. Chem. 530, 16–22
(2002)
12. Q. Xu, C. Schwandt, D.J. Fray, Electrochemical investigation of lithium and tin reduction at a
graphite cathode in molten chlorides. J. Electroanal. Chem. 562, 15–21 (2004)
13. J. Sychev, N.V. Borisenko, G. Kaptay, K.B. Kushkhov, Intercalation of sodium and lithium into
graphite as a first stage in an electrochemical method for producing carbon nanotubes. Russ.
J. Electrochem. 41, 956–963 (2005)
14. J. Sytchev, G. Kaptay, Influence of current density on the erosion of a graphite cathode and
electrolytic formation of carbon nanotubes in molten NaCl and LiCl. Electrochim. Acta 54,
6725–6731 (2009)
15. A.R. Kamali, D.J. Fray, Towards large scale preparation of carbon nanostructures in molten
LiCl. Carbon 77, 835–845 (2014)
16. M. Fujimoto, N. Yoshinaga, K. Ueno, Li-ion Secondary Batteries, Japanese Patent 3,229,635,
1991
17. R. Fong, U. von Sacken, J.R. Dahn, Studies of lithium intercalation into carbons using
nonaqueous electrochemical cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 137, 2009–2013 (1990)
18. K. Xie, A.R. Kamali, Electro-reduction of hematite using water as the redox mediator. Green
Chemistry, Green Chem. 21, 198–204 (2019)
19. A.R. Kamali, D.J. Fray, Large-scale preparation of graphene by high temperature diffusion of
hydrogen in graphite. Nanoscale 7, 11310–11320 (2015)
20. A.R. Kamali, Eco-friendly production of high quality low cost graphene and its application in
lithium ion batteries. Green Chem. 18, 1952–1964 (2016)
21. A.R. Kamali, Scalable fabrication of highly conductive 3D graphene by electrochemical exfoliation of graphite in molten NaCl under Ar/H 2 atmosphere. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 52, 18–27
(2017)
22. H.K. Kim, A.R. Kamali, K.C. Roh, K.B. Kim, D.J. Fray, Dual coexisting interconnected
graphene nanostructures for high performance supercapacitor applications. Energy Environ.
Sci. 9, 2249–2256 (2016)
23. A.R. Kamali, H.K. Kim, K.B. Kim, R.V. Kumar, D.J. Fray, Large scale green production of
ultra-high capacity anode consisting of graphene encapsulated silicon nanoparticles. J. Mater.
Chem. A 5, 19126–19135 (2017)
24. A.R. Kamali, J. Feighan, D.J. Fray, Towards large scale preparation of graphene in molten salts
and its use in the fabrication of highly toughened alumina ceramics. Faraday Discuss. 190,
451–470 (2016)
25. L. Labiadh, A.R. Kamali, Unpublished work
26. A.R. Kamali, D.J. Fray, Preparation of nanodiamonds from carbon nanoparticles at atmospheric
pressure. Chem. Commun. 51, 5594–5597 (2015)
27. W. Weng, L. Tang, W. Xiao, Capture and electro-splitting of CO 2 in molten salts. J. Energy
Chem. 28, 128–143 (2019)
28. A.R. Kamali, Nanocatalytic conversion of CO 2 into nanodiamonds. Carbon 123, 205–215
(2017)
29. A.R. Kamali, J. Yang, Q. Sun, Molten salt conversion of polyethylene terephthalate waste into
graphene nanostructures with high surface area and ultra-high electrical conductivity. Appl.
Surf. Sci. 476, 539–551 (2019)