420
R. Mankamna Kumari et al.
through skin also follows the same principle. Cationic compounds can easily penetrate through the skin as the skin carries negative surface charge due to the presence
of phosphotidylcholine and carbohydrates. Thus, nanoemulsions with phytosphingosine were able to effectively deliver fludrocortisones’ acetate and flumethasone
through the porcine skin than those of negatively charged ones (Chang et al. 2006;
Hoeller et al. 2009; Staples et al. 2006).
3 Polymeric Nanoparticles and Its Role in Therapeutics
and Diagnostics
3.1 Chitosan
Chitosan is a heteropolymer made of N-acetyl glucosamine and D-glucosamine subunits which is derived from naturally available polymer, chitin by N-deacetylation
process (Kumar 2000). This is an extensively studied polymer that is water-soluble in
nature, along with high biocompatibility, biodegradability, hydrophilicity, and other
protective properties (Gazori et al. 2009). Besides, numerous other polymers have
been implemented for the purpose of drug delivery. However, insoluble polymers
used for nanoformulation make use of organic solvents; heat and high shear force that
could possibly affect the inherent properties of drugs or therapeutic molecules. Every
polymer depending on its constituents exhibits specific physicochemical properties
such as charge, lipophilicity, solubility, and particle size (Dobrovolskaia and McNeil
2007; Fischer and Chan 2007; Gazori et al. 2009). Henceforth, the physicochemical
factors can potentially affect the pharmacological property as well as the biocompatibility of the polymer. To overcome the biocompatibility issues, surface modification
of the NPs with hydrophilic polymers is one of the strategies to prevent opsonisation by improving the surface properties of the NPs in the physiological milieu
(Naahidi et al. 2013). Further, several chitosan derivatives were developed such as
trimethyl chitosan (Chen et al. 2008a), thiolated chitosan, chitosan esters and conjugates to improve the pharmaceutical efficiency of the polymer (Bernkop-Schnürch
et al. 2003) and have been implemented for mucosal, anticancer, and antimicrobial
delivery. Chitosan, with its mucoadhesive property has been implemented for the
intranasal delivery of drugs such as olanzapine and didanosine to increase its systemic bioavailability (Al-Ghananeem et al. 2010; Baltzley et al. 2014). It is well
known that the current anticancer drugs have marked its promising benefits in cancer
therapeutics. However, these drugs also pose deleterious side effects. Chitosan NPs
were widely studied to deliver several anticancer drugs including methotrexate, curcumin, doxorubicin, and docetaxel. It was observed that chitosan NPs were able to
release 50% of methotrexate loaded within 48 h. Doxorubicin loaded NPs were able
to release the drug into the cell in its active form. Also, the toxicity of docetaxel was
significantly reduced in relative to free drug, with reduction in tumor volume of mice
(Anitha et al. 2012; Hwang et al. 2008; Janes et al. 2001; Yang et al. 2008). Further,
R. Mankamna Kumari et al.
through skin also follows the same principle. Cationic compounds can easily penetrate through the skin as the skin carries negative surface charge due to the presence
of phosphotidylcholine and carbohydrates. Thus, nanoemulsions with phytosphingosine were able to effectively deliver fludrocortisones’ acetate and flumethasone
through the porcine skin than those of negatively charged ones (Chang et al. 2006;
Hoeller et al. 2009; Staples et al. 2006).
3 Polymeric Nanoparticles and Its Role in Therapeutics
and Diagnostics
3.1 Chitosan
Chitosan is a heteropolymer made of N-acetyl glucosamine and D-glucosamine subunits which is derived from naturally available polymer, chitin by N-deacetylation
process (Kumar 2000). This is an extensively studied polymer that is water-soluble in
nature, along with high biocompatibility, biodegradability, hydrophilicity, and other
protective properties (Gazori et al. 2009). Besides, numerous other polymers have
been implemented for the purpose of drug delivery. However, insoluble polymers
used for nanoformulation make use of organic solvents; heat and high shear force that
could possibly affect the inherent properties of drugs or therapeutic molecules. Every
polymer depending on its constituents exhibits specific physicochemical properties
such as charge, lipophilicity, solubility, and particle size (Dobrovolskaia and McNeil
2007; Fischer and Chan 2007; Gazori et al. 2009). Henceforth, the physicochemical
factors can potentially affect the pharmacological property as well as the biocompatibility of the polymer. To overcome the biocompatibility issues, surface modification
of the NPs with hydrophilic polymers is one of the strategies to prevent opsonisation by improving the surface properties of the NPs in the physiological milieu
(Naahidi et al. 2013). Further, several chitosan derivatives were developed such as
trimethyl chitosan (Chen et al. 2008a), thiolated chitosan, chitosan esters and conjugates to improve the pharmaceutical efficiency of the polymer (Bernkop-Schnürch
et al. 2003) and have been implemented for mucosal, anticancer, and antimicrobial
delivery. Chitosan, with its mucoadhesive property has been implemented for the
intranasal delivery of drugs such as olanzapine and didanosine to increase its systemic bioavailability (Al-Ghananeem et al. 2010; Baltzley et al. 2014). It is well
known that the current anticancer drugs have marked its promising benefits in cancer
therapeutics. However, these drugs also pose deleterious side effects. Chitosan NPs
were widely studied to deliver several anticancer drugs including methotrexate, curcumin, doxorubicin, and docetaxel. It was observed that chitosan NPs were able to
release 50% of methotrexate loaded within 48 h. Doxorubicin loaded NPs were able
to release the drug into the cell in its active form. Also, the toxicity of docetaxel was
significantly reduced in relative to free drug, with reduction in tumor volume of mice
(Anitha et al. 2012; Hwang et al. 2008; Janes et al. 2001; Yang et al. 2008). Further,