in the defence sector. The unmanned vessels of today are fairly modest in size but
prototypes are being developed of unmanned container carriers and passenger liners.
So far, it appears that autonomous vessels will in the beginning be used on relatively
short voyages in inland waters or close to the shore. The use of unmanned vessels, in
particular fully autonomous unmanned vessels, on longer ocean voyages for commercial carriage of goods and passengers lies probably further in the future.
Unmanned vessels can provide advantages with respect to operating costs. They
may also potentially have benefits from an environmental point of view as a result of
a reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases.
Statistical data indicate that some 60% of all maritime accidents are caused by
human error.
64 It has been suggested, therefore, that the use of unmanned vessels
would significantly reduce the number of such accidents. On the other hand, many
accidents are avoided by human intervention. The consequences of a maritime
accident involving an unmanned craft may also be more severe than if the ship
had been manned, since in the case of unmanned ships there would be no crew on
board who could intervene rapidly and mitigate the damage. For instance, in an
incident involving fire there would be no crew who could act as fire fighters, and in
the case of an oil spill from an unmanned vessel there would be no crew who could
intervene rapidly to combat the spill. In addition, unmanned vessels may cause new
types of maritime accidents.
5.2.3 Consideration of Issues Relating to Unmanned Ships
in Various Fora
The introduction of unmanned vessels will present many challenges from a technical
point of view, in particular as regards the safety of operation of such vessels. These
aspects will, however, not be discussed in this chapter, which will focus on the legal
issues that will have to be considered.
The legal problems caused by the operation of unmanned vessels have for some
years been discussed in the academic community.
65 These issues have also been
examined by a number of governments
66 as well as by the industries concerned,
e.g. by shipowners through the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS),
67 by
insurers through the Insurance Institute of London and the International Group of
P&I Associations, as well as by classification societies. As will be set out below,
issues relating to unmanned ships are at present being considered within IMO and by
the CMI.
64 Chuah (2016).
65 Ringbom et al. (2016), pp. 35–55; Hooydonk (2014); Veal and Tsimplis (2017); Carey (2017);
Ringbom (2019); Chami (2018).
66 See for instance Danish Maritime Authority (2017).
67 Hamburg School of Business Administration (HSBA) (2018).
What Challenges Lie Ahead for Maritime Law?
275
prototypes are being developed of unmanned container carriers and passenger liners.
So far, it appears that autonomous vessels will in the beginning be used on relatively
short voyages in inland waters or close to the shore. The use of unmanned vessels, in
particular fully autonomous unmanned vessels, on longer ocean voyages for commercial carriage of goods and passengers lies probably further in the future.
Unmanned vessels can provide advantages with respect to operating costs. They
may also potentially have benefits from an environmental point of view as a result of
a reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases.
Statistical data indicate that some 60% of all maritime accidents are caused by
human error.
64 It has been suggested, therefore, that the use of unmanned vessels
would significantly reduce the number of such accidents. On the other hand, many
accidents are avoided by human intervention. The consequences of a maritime
accident involving an unmanned craft may also be more severe than if the ship
had been manned, since in the case of unmanned ships there would be no crew on
board who could intervene rapidly and mitigate the damage. For instance, in an
incident involving fire there would be no crew who could act as fire fighters, and in
the case of an oil spill from an unmanned vessel there would be no crew who could
intervene rapidly to combat the spill. In addition, unmanned vessels may cause new
types of maritime accidents.
5.2.3 Consideration of Issues Relating to Unmanned Ships
in Various Fora
The introduction of unmanned vessels will present many challenges from a technical
point of view, in particular as regards the safety of operation of such vessels. These
aspects will, however, not be discussed in this chapter, which will focus on the legal
issues that will have to be considered.
The legal problems caused by the operation of unmanned vessels have for some
years been discussed in the academic community.
65 These issues have also been
examined by a number of governments
66 as well as by the industries concerned,
e.g. by shipowners through the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS),
67 by
insurers through the Insurance Institute of London and the International Group of
P&I Associations, as well as by classification societies. As will be set out below,
issues relating to unmanned ships are at present being considered within IMO and by
the CMI.
64 Chuah (2016).
65 Ringbom et al. (2016), pp. 35–55; Hooydonk (2014); Veal and Tsimplis (2017); Carey (2017);
Ringbom (2019); Chami (2018).
66 See for instance Danish Maritime Authority (2017).
67 Hamburg School of Business Administration (HSBA) (2018).
What Challenges Lie Ahead for Maritime Law?
275