219
4.3 Failures of Representative Democracy
In the era of industrial capitalism, representative democracy has typically failed to
represent the interests of the majority, The institution of representative democracy
as it evolved in Europe and America in the nineteenth and twentieth century ruled in
favor of the “sinister interests” of the holders of power at the expense of the interests
of the whole community according to Jeremy Bentham (1815). John Stuart Mill
(1859) also recognized this danger to democracy. The analysis of Bentham and Mill
found echoes in the political philosophy and sociological analysis of Vilfredo Pareto
(1916), Gaetano Mosca (1896), and the American C. S Mills (1956). Indeed C.S
Mills identified a compact of economic, political and military elites who tended to
think and behave in very similar ways that made a mockery of democracy (Bergandi
2017, pp. 181–184).
5 Oligarchy
5.1 Definition
Oligarchy is a political regime in which the wealthiest classes are disproportionately powerful and rule for the sake of their private interests (Neill 2011, p. 25). It is
the opposite of democracy in the sense that it involves control by the few (rather
than the many) and where the few are wealthy and the many are not wealthy
(Simpson 2011, p. 74). In oligarchies, political participation and justice are unequal
in contrast with equal justice and equal participation that define democracy.
Most oligarchies have constitutions that are governed by the rule of law. However,
the administration of justice is unequal in oligarchic regimes. The preservation of
unequal justice requires limitations on the freedom of speech where freedom of
speech entails speech that is frank, open and without fear of recrimination and
reveals and uncovers the truth as one sees it (Cooper 2011, pp. 200, 204).
The limitation on free speech requires a measure of deceit or sophistry on the
part of oligarchic leaders. One of the elements of deceit is the use of ideology that
is a cloak for deeper motivation for the excessive accumulation of wealth in the
hands of a few or for the cause and unfolding of war against foreign states (Bagby
2011, pp. 122–123). Another example is found in George Orwell’s 1984 speech
using aphorisms like “war is peace”, “freedom is slavery” and “ignorance is
strength” which represent the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one’s
mind simultaneously and accepting both of them (Bergandi 2017, pp. 179, 186). A
recent example of duplicity is found in the term “sustainable development” that is
sufficiently vague to allow multiple meanings which are in conflict. One meaning of
the term implies protection of the environment for future generations while the term
development allows for a continued adherence to economic growth that degrades
the environment (Montini and Volpe 2017, p. 173).
The Political Economy of Managing Without Growth
4.3 Failures of Representative Democracy
In the era of industrial capitalism, representative democracy has typically failed to
represent the interests of the majority, The institution of representative democracy
as it evolved in Europe and America in the nineteenth and twentieth century ruled in
favor of the “sinister interests” of the holders of power at the expense of the interests
of the whole community according to Jeremy Bentham (1815). John Stuart Mill
(1859) also recognized this danger to democracy. The analysis of Bentham and Mill
found echoes in the political philosophy and sociological analysis of Vilfredo Pareto
(1916), Gaetano Mosca (1896), and the American C. S Mills (1956). Indeed C.S
Mills identified a compact of economic, political and military elites who tended to
think and behave in very similar ways that made a mockery of democracy (Bergandi
2017, pp. 181–184).
5 Oligarchy
5.1 Definition
Oligarchy is a political regime in which the wealthiest classes are disproportionately powerful and rule for the sake of their private interests (Neill 2011, p. 25). It is
the opposite of democracy in the sense that it involves control by the few (rather
than the many) and where the few are wealthy and the many are not wealthy
(Simpson 2011, p. 74). In oligarchies, political participation and justice are unequal
in contrast with equal justice and equal participation that define democracy.
Most oligarchies have constitutions that are governed by the rule of law. However,
the administration of justice is unequal in oligarchic regimes. The preservation of
unequal justice requires limitations on the freedom of speech where freedom of
speech entails speech that is frank, open and without fear of recrimination and
reveals and uncovers the truth as one sees it (Cooper 2011, pp. 200, 204).
The limitation on free speech requires a measure of deceit or sophistry on the
part of oligarchic leaders. One of the elements of deceit is the use of ideology that
is a cloak for deeper motivation for the excessive accumulation of wealth in the
hands of a few or for the cause and unfolding of war against foreign states (Bagby
2011, pp. 122–123). Another example is found in George Orwell’s 1984 speech
using aphorisms like “war is peace”, “freedom is slavery” and “ignorance is
strength” which represent the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one’s
mind simultaneously and accepting both of them (Bergandi 2017, pp. 179, 186). A
recent example of duplicity is found in the term “sustainable development” that is
sufficiently vague to allow multiple meanings which are in conflict. One meaning of
the term implies protection of the environment for future generations while the term
development allows for a continued adherence to economic growth that degrades
the environment (Montini and Volpe 2017, p. 173).
The Political Economy of Managing Without Growth