Leisure Activities and Loneliness Among People with Disabilities
69
Goebel et al. (2018) for further information on the SOEP data). In this study, we only
used two years (2013 and 2017) because they are the only ones in which the measure
of loneliness was available. Following the works of Russell (1996), Hughes et al.
(2004), and Hawkley et al. (2015), we have created a validated three-item version
of the UCLA Loneliness Scale, based on three questions included in the SOEP
questionnaires for 2013 and 2017: (a) How often do you miss the company of other
people? (b) How often do you feel left out? and (c) How often do you feel socially
isolated?. The possible answers are: very often, often, sometimes, seldom and never.
After recoding these responses (i.e. 0 = never, 1 = seldom, 2 = sometimes, 3 =
often, and 4 = very often), and similar to Luhmann and Hawkley (2016), we have
created a variable called “loneliness” that is the mean value of the responses to these
three questions, and thus taking values from 0 (no loneliness) to 4 (high degree of
loneliness).
As for the disability measure, and in line with the existing literature (e.g.
DeLeire 2001; Gannon 2005; Pagan 2011), the SOEP questionnaire also includes
the following two questions: ‘Do you have a health problem that limits you in
normal everyday life? (Yes, severely/Yes, somewhat/No, not at all)’. Individuals
responding ‘No, not at all’ can be identified as people without disabilities, whereas
those answering ‘Yes’ are defined as people with disabilities. Only for those individuals responding ‘Yes, severely’ or ‘Yes, somewhat’ to this first question are they also
questioned: ‘Have you had this health problem for more than half a year? (Yes/No)’.
Once again, individuals responding ‘No’ are considered as people without disabilities, whereas those answering ‘Yes’ can be defined as people with disabilities (but
with different degrees of severity). Following Gannon (2005), two groups can be
considered within the latter: (a) Those reporting a health problem for more than half
a year that severely limits their normal daily activities; and (b) those who report such
a condition but state that it limits them but somewhat (i.e. moderately). Therefore,
we can consider three possible groups: (a) People without disabilities, (b) People
with disabilities, who are moderately limited, and (c) People with disabilities, who
are severely limited.
1
Looking at the SOEP questionnaires for 2013 and 2017, we find that they also
include a set of questions concerning free time which reveal how often individuals
take part in some leisure activities (e.g. engaging in social interaction with friends
and relatives, attending religious events, doing volunteer work, watching TV/video,
cultural events, among others). However, the total number of these leisure activities
is quite different each year (19 and 9 in 2013 and 2017, respectively). Because of
this limitation, we have only focused on the answers obtained for 8 different leisure
activities that were included in both years: (1) Social gatherings with family, friends
and neighbours; (2) Taking part in sports; (3) Artistic and musical activities; (4)
Attending church or religious events; (5) Participation in public initiatives, political
parties and local government; (6) Volunteer activities; (7) Going to the cinema, pop
1 Although this disability measure is a self-evaluation and it does not refer to an “objective” definition of disability, the questions of the SOEP incorporate the main objective of the World Health
Organization definition that relates disability to limitations on daily activities.
69
Goebel et al. (2018) for further information on the SOEP data). In this study, we only
used two years (2013 and 2017) because they are the only ones in which the measure
of loneliness was available. Following the works of Russell (1996), Hughes et al.
(2004), and Hawkley et al. (2015), we have created a validated three-item version
of the UCLA Loneliness Scale, based on three questions included in the SOEP
questionnaires for 2013 and 2017: (a) How often do you miss the company of other
people? (b) How often do you feel left out? and (c) How often do you feel socially
isolated?. The possible answers are: very often, often, sometimes, seldom and never.
After recoding these responses (i.e. 0 = never, 1 = seldom, 2 = sometimes, 3 =
often, and 4 = very often), and similar to Luhmann and Hawkley (2016), we have
created a variable called “loneliness” that is the mean value of the responses to these
three questions, and thus taking values from 0 (no loneliness) to 4 (high degree of
loneliness).
As for the disability measure, and in line with the existing literature (e.g.
DeLeire 2001; Gannon 2005; Pagan 2011), the SOEP questionnaire also includes
the following two questions: ‘Do you have a health problem that limits you in
normal everyday life? (Yes, severely/Yes, somewhat/No, not at all)’. Individuals
responding ‘No, not at all’ can be identified as people without disabilities, whereas
those answering ‘Yes’ are defined as people with disabilities. Only for those individuals responding ‘Yes, severely’ or ‘Yes, somewhat’ to this first question are they also
questioned: ‘Have you had this health problem for more than half a year? (Yes/No)’.
Once again, individuals responding ‘No’ are considered as people without disabilities, whereas those answering ‘Yes’ can be defined as people with disabilities (but
with different degrees of severity). Following Gannon (2005), two groups can be
considered within the latter: (a) Those reporting a health problem for more than half
a year that severely limits their normal daily activities; and (b) those who report such
a condition but state that it limits them but somewhat (i.e. moderately). Therefore,
we can consider three possible groups: (a) People without disabilities, (b) People
with disabilities, who are moderately limited, and (c) People with disabilities, who
are severely limited.
1
Looking at the SOEP questionnaires for 2013 and 2017, we find that they also
include a set of questions concerning free time which reveal how often individuals
take part in some leisure activities (e.g. engaging in social interaction with friends
and relatives, attending religious events, doing volunteer work, watching TV/video,
cultural events, among others). However, the total number of these leisure activities
is quite different each year (19 and 9 in 2013 and 2017, respectively). Because of
this limitation, we have only focused on the answers obtained for 8 different leisure
activities that were included in both years: (1) Social gatherings with family, friends
and neighbours; (2) Taking part in sports; (3) Artistic and musical activities; (4)
Attending church or religious events; (5) Participation in public initiatives, political
parties and local government; (6) Volunteer activities; (7) Going to the cinema, pop
1 Although this disability measure is a self-evaluation and it does not refer to an “objective” definition of disability, the questions of the SOEP incorporate the main objective of the World Health
Organization definition that relates disability to limitations on daily activities.