110
M. B. Johnson and M. Mehrvar
and found values ranging from 2 to 18.5 L/L, and that the variability in annual
production volume (L wine/yr) had a considerable impact on the normalized water
use value. Therefore, total water use trends (L water use/yr) and fluctuations in overall
production (L wine/yr) should also be considered when evaluating a winery’s water
use data.
The techniques used for sanitizing equipment can have a significant impact on
water use, which contributes to its wide variability. For example, Garcia-Alcaraz et al.
[23] compared the water use associated with four wine barrel sanitizing techniques,
and found that a water vapour + SO 2 technique required over three times the volume
of water than a CO 2 disinfection technique.
Overall water consumption can be reduced via the adoption of industry best practices. The water audit approach [32, 57] can be used to identify and prioritize water
conservation opportunities. In addition to utilizing low-consumption cleaning and
sanitation techniques, options can include installing flow metres to allow monitoring
of water use, proactive squeegeeing to remove wastes and spillage prior to washing,
and implementing spill prevention measures [16].
3.3 Other Areas of Water Usage
Many wineries now take part in the “wine tourism” sector to increase revenues [37],
but with these come additional water demands. In addition to requiring the provision
of washroom facilities for tourists, some wineries may also have on-site restaurants
and accommodations. Irrigation of lawns and shrubbery may also be implemented
to increase visual appeal of the property. Despite the water use associated with
these activities, these increased demands do not directly impact the WF of the winemaking process, since they are not directly related to the manufacturing of the wine.
By contrast, the water demand exerted by vineyard and winery employees, such as
in washroom and lunchroom facilities, directly affect the WF of the wine-making
process since these employees are directly involved in the viticultural and vinification
stages of production.
Although offsite, water is used in the manufacturing of the chemicals, cleaning
agents, bottles, labels, glue and corking materials that are ultimately used by the
vineyard and winery. When available, the data for these water uses can be included
in a water use assessment, although it should be recognized that these are not under
the control of the vineyard or winery operations. If included in a WF assessment,
this water use would contribute to the indirect WF (see Sect. 5.1).
4 Wastewater Generation, Handling and Fate
In addition to water use, an understanding of wastewater handling, treatment and
disposal is required to develop a comprehensive understanding of the WF of the
wine-making process. While effluents from wastewater holding or treatment systems
M. B. Johnson and M. Mehrvar
and found values ranging from 2 to 18.5 L/L, and that the variability in annual
production volume (L wine/yr) had a considerable impact on the normalized water
use value. Therefore, total water use trends (L water use/yr) and fluctuations in overall
production (L wine/yr) should also be considered when evaluating a winery’s water
use data.
The techniques used for sanitizing equipment can have a significant impact on
water use, which contributes to its wide variability. For example, Garcia-Alcaraz et al.
[23] compared the water use associated with four wine barrel sanitizing techniques,
and found that a water vapour + SO 2 technique required over three times the volume
of water than a CO 2 disinfection technique.
Overall water consumption can be reduced via the adoption of industry best practices. The water audit approach [32, 57] can be used to identify and prioritize water
conservation opportunities. In addition to utilizing low-consumption cleaning and
sanitation techniques, options can include installing flow metres to allow monitoring
of water use, proactive squeegeeing to remove wastes and spillage prior to washing,
and implementing spill prevention measures [16].
3.3 Other Areas of Water Usage
Many wineries now take part in the “wine tourism” sector to increase revenues [37],
but with these come additional water demands. In addition to requiring the provision
of washroom facilities for tourists, some wineries may also have on-site restaurants
and accommodations. Irrigation of lawns and shrubbery may also be implemented
to increase visual appeal of the property. Despite the water use associated with
these activities, these increased demands do not directly impact the WF of the winemaking process, since they are not directly related to the manufacturing of the wine.
By contrast, the water demand exerted by vineyard and winery employees, such as
in washroom and lunchroom facilities, directly affect the WF of the wine-making
process since these employees are directly involved in the viticultural and vinification
stages of production.
Although offsite, water is used in the manufacturing of the chemicals, cleaning
agents, bottles, labels, glue and corking materials that are ultimately used by the
vineyard and winery. When available, the data for these water uses can be included
in a water use assessment, although it should be recognized that these are not under
the control of the vineyard or winery operations. If included in a WF assessment,
this water use would contribute to the indirect WF (see Sect. 5.1).
4 Wastewater Generation, Handling and Fate
In addition to water use, an understanding of wastewater handling, treatment and
disposal is required to develop a comprehensive understanding of the WF of the
wine-making process. While effluents from wastewater holding or treatment systems