From Field to Bottle: Water Footprint Estimation …
105
of rain and freshwater (surface and/or ground) sources, while also generating both
non-point and point-source discharges of contaminants to the natural environment.
Effluent water reuse for irrigation within the vineyard is becoming more popular as a
way to reduce extraction of local surface and/or groundwaters [13, 47], adding further
complexity to the evaluation of the overall impact of winery production operations
on water resources.
Due to the climate and soil conditions needed to support grape growing, winery
operations are usually concentrated in small geographic regions [19]. Some wellknown wine regions include Champagne and Bordeaux in France, Rheingau and
Rheinhessen in Germany, Napa Valley and Paso Robles in California, and the Niagara
Region and Kootenays in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and British Columbia,
respectively. Understanding water consumption and wastewater treatment performance is critical to assessing options that can be implemented at a particular facility
to conserve water and reduce environmental impacts. By contrast, regional assessments may be appropriate for assessing the overall impact of winery operations on
local water resources, since the combined impact from multiple wineries can have
significant impacts on certain water resources such as specific aquifers and surface
water bodies [27].
A number of methodologies have been proposed and continue to evolve in an effort
to identify reliable approaches to quantify the environmental impact associated with
the appropriation of freshwater resources [50]. This, coupled with the complexity
of the water extraction and discharge cycles during wine-making and the impact of
site-specific conditions on water demand and use, have resulted in wide variations in
the interpretation and application of the WF concept to wine-making. In some cases,
assessments focus on only a portion of the overall WF, while in other cases a complete
WF value is reported; some consider only a single winery while other assessments are
regional in scope; some consider the footprint from vineyard to bottle, while others
consider only a fraction of the processes involved in wine-making. Modifications
and enhancements to the approach as first proposed by Hoekstra et al. [28] have
been made in recent years, making water footprinting an evolving assessment tool.
Some of these proposed enhancements and modifications apply to the WF assessment
approach from a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) perspective, such as ISO 14046:2014
[31], AWARE—Available WAter REmaining [12]—and the Water Stress Index [53],
while the V.I.V.A. (Valutazione Impatto Viticoltura sull’Ambiente) tool has been
developed specifically for the assessment of the consumptive WF associated with
wine-making process [39].
Here, we review the wine-making process and factors that affect water use and
pollution; recent advances in water use and conservation; winery wastewater treatment and effluent reuse; and an overview of the approaches available to define the
scope of and calculate the WF of wine-making. Recent applications of the WF
assessment process to case studies, and challenges associated with utilizing these
approaches, are also discussed.
105
of rain and freshwater (surface and/or ground) sources, while also generating both
non-point and point-source discharges of contaminants to the natural environment.
Effluent water reuse for irrigation within the vineyard is becoming more popular as a
way to reduce extraction of local surface and/or groundwaters [13, 47], adding further
complexity to the evaluation of the overall impact of winery production operations
on water resources.
Due to the climate and soil conditions needed to support grape growing, winery
operations are usually concentrated in small geographic regions [19]. Some wellknown wine regions include Champagne and Bordeaux in France, Rheingau and
Rheinhessen in Germany, Napa Valley and Paso Robles in California, and the Niagara
Region and Kootenays in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and British Columbia,
respectively. Understanding water consumption and wastewater treatment performance is critical to assessing options that can be implemented at a particular facility
to conserve water and reduce environmental impacts. By contrast, regional assessments may be appropriate for assessing the overall impact of winery operations on
local water resources, since the combined impact from multiple wineries can have
significant impacts on certain water resources such as specific aquifers and surface
water bodies [27].
A number of methodologies have been proposed and continue to evolve in an effort
to identify reliable approaches to quantify the environmental impact associated with
the appropriation of freshwater resources [50]. This, coupled with the complexity
of the water extraction and discharge cycles during wine-making and the impact of
site-specific conditions on water demand and use, have resulted in wide variations in
the interpretation and application of the WF concept to wine-making. In some cases,
assessments focus on only a portion of the overall WF, while in other cases a complete
WF value is reported; some consider only a single winery while other assessments are
regional in scope; some consider the footprint from vineyard to bottle, while others
consider only a fraction of the processes involved in wine-making. Modifications
and enhancements to the approach as first proposed by Hoekstra et al. [28] have
been made in recent years, making water footprinting an evolving assessment tool.
Some of these proposed enhancements and modifications apply to the WF assessment
approach from a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) perspective, such as ISO 14046:2014
[31], AWARE—Available WAter REmaining [12]—and the Water Stress Index [53],
while the V.I.V.A. (Valutazione Impatto Viticoltura sull’Ambiente) tool has been
developed specifically for the assessment of the consumptive WF associated with
wine-making process [39].
Here, we review the wine-making process and factors that affect water use and
pollution; recent advances in water use and conservation; winery wastewater treatment and effluent reuse; and an overview of the approaches available to define the
scope of and calculate the WF of wine-making. Recent applications of the WF
assessment process to case studies, and challenges associated with utilizing these
approaches, are also discussed.