573
et al. 2012). It has however limitations in therapeutic applications due to its low
bioavailability and higher metabolic activity (Agrawal and Goel 2016; Cavaleri and
Jia 2017). Resveratrol (3,5,40–trihydroxystilbene) the most common phenolics is
found in grape (Vitis vinifera) juice, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), pistachios
(Pistaciavera) and blueberries (Perry and Howes 2011). It provides potent health
benefits against cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases through its antioxidative and anti–inflammatory effects in circulatory system,
potential of lowering cholesterol, and protecting against clots which can cause heart
attacks and stroke (Howes 2018; Agrawal and Goel 2016; Cavaleri and Jia 2017).
Phenolic acids are categorized into two major classes: Hydroxybenzoic acid
derivatives including protocatechuic acid, p–hydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, and
hydroxy cinnamic acid derivatives like coumaric, caffeic, ferulic, chlorogenic, and
sinapic acid. Gallic acid and caffeic acid help in preventing the cancer due to its
potent antioxidant properties. Another potent antioxidant ferulic acid, present in
oats, sweet corn, and tomatoes aids in reducing blood pressure and protect skin.
Flavonoids are a diverse group of phytochemicals found in almost all fruits and
vegetables. Along with carotenoids, they are responsible for the vivid colors in
fruits and vegetables. These are classified into flavonols (isorhamnetin, kaempferol,
myricetin, quercetin), flavanols (catechin), gallocatechin (epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin), flavones (apigenin, chrysin, luteolin, rutin), isoflavones (biochanin
A), daidzin, formononetin, genistein, glycitein), flavononols (astilbin, engeletin,
genistin, taxifolin), flavonones (eriodictyol, hesperidin, isosakuranetin, naringenin,
naringin, taxifolin), anthocyanidins (cyanidin, delphinidin, epigenidin, malvidin,
pelargonidin, peonidin, petunidin), and chalcones (butein, okanin) based on the
structural variations in the number and positions of OH groups or the presence of
ketonic group in the middle ring (Beecher 2003). Anthocyanins are another group
of flavonoids that occur as glycosides and responsible for the blue, purple and red
(as flavylium cation, 2–phenylbenzopyrilium) pigments in various fruits, vegetables
and flowers. They depict anti–inflammatory, anti–hyperglycemic, anti–allergic,
anti–microbial, and anti–cancer activities (Singh et al. 2017b; Woodward et al.
2009). Very recently, Cyanidin 3–O–glucoside has been reported to inhibit enzymes
involved in CNS pathologies and enzymes like α–glucosidase and dipeptidyl peptidase–4 involved in type–II diabetes (Cásedas et al. 2019). Malvidin 3–O–glucoside,
is reported for its anti–inflammatory actions in arthritis, as it decreases transcription
of genes encoding inflammatory mediators and reduced inflammation in an animal
model (Howes 2018; Decendit et al. 2013). The antioxidant and anti–inflammatory
effects of the malvidin also contributed to the positive effects on health of moderate
red wine consumption (Howes and Simmonds 2014; Howes 2018).
Quercetin is widely occurring plant flavonoid found in onions, apples, broccoli,
grapes, blueberries, cherries, and Ginkgo biloba. It increases the survival rate of
animals with diseases and is a potent antioxidant and has anti–inflammatory and
anti–cancer activities (Kong et al. 2016). Rutin and quercetin present in Buckwheat
(Fagopyrum esculentum), onion, berries, and apples provide protection against
inflammation and cancer (Singh et al. 2009). Flavonol and kaempferol are widely
25 Bioavailability of Nutrients and Safety Measurements
et al. 2012). It has however limitations in therapeutic applications due to its low
bioavailability and higher metabolic activity (Agrawal and Goel 2016; Cavaleri and
Jia 2017). Resveratrol (3,5,40–trihydroxystilbene) the most common phenolics is
found in grape (Vitis vinifera) juice, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), pistachios
(Pistaciavera) and blueberries (Perry and Howes 2011). It provides potent health
benefits against cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases through its antioxidative and anti–inflammatory effects in circulatory system,
potential of lowering cholesterol, and protecting against clots which can cause heart
attacks and stroke (Howes 2018; Agrawal and Goel 2016; Cavaleri and Jia 2017).
Phenolic acids are categorized into two major classes: Hydroxybenzoic acid
derivatives including protocatechuic acid, p–hydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, and
hydroxy cinnamic acid derivatives like coumaric, caffeic, ferulic, chlorogenic, and
sinapic acid. Gallic acid and caffeic acid help in preventing the cancer due to its
potent antioxidant properties. Another potent antioxidant ferulic acid, present in
oats, sweet corn, and tomatoes aids in reducing blood pressure and protect skin.
Flavonoids are a diverse group of phytochemicals found in almost all fruits and
vegetables. Along with carotenoids, they are responsible for the vivid colors in
fruits and vegetables. These are classified into flavonols (isorhamnetin, kaempferol,
myricetin, quercetin), flavanols (catechin), gallocatechin (epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin), flavones (apigenin, chrysin, luteolin, rutin), isoflavones (biochanin
A), daidzin, formononetin, genistein, glycitein), flavononols (astilbin, engeletin,
genistin, taxifolin), flavonones (eriodictyol, hesperidin, isosakuranetin, naringenin,
naringin, taxifolin), anthocyanidins (cyanidin, delphinidin, epigenidin, malvidin,
pelargonidin, peonidin, petunidin), and chalcones (butein, okanin) based on the
structural variations in the number and positions of OH groups or the presence of
ketonic group in the middle ring (Beecher 2003). Anthocyanins are another group
of flavonoids that occur as glycosides and responsible for the blue, purple and red
(as flavylium cation, 2–phenylbenzopyrilium) pigments in various fruits, vegetables
and flowers. They depict anti–inflammatory, anti–hyperglycemic, anti–allergic,
anti–microbial, and anti–cancer activities (Singh et al. 2017b; Woodward et al.
2009). Very recently, Cyanidin 3–O–glucoside has been reported to inhibit enzymes
involved in CNS pathologies and enzymes like α–glucosidase and dipeptidyl peptidase–4 involved in type–II diabetes (Cásedas et al. 2019). Malvidin 3–O–glucoside,
is reported for its anti–inflammatory actions in arthritis, as it decreases transcription
of genes encoding inflammatory mediators and reduced inflammation in an animal
model (Howes 2018; Decendit et al. 2013). The antioxidant and anti–inflammatory
effects of the malvidin also contributed to the positive effects on health of moderate
red wine consumption (Howes and Simmonds 2014; Howes 2018).
Quercetin is widely occurring plant flavonoid found in onions, apples, broccoli,
grapes, blueberries, cherries, and Ginkgo biloba. It increases the survival rate of
animals with diseases and is a potent antioxidant and has anti–inflammatory and
anti–cancer activities (Kong et al. 2016). Rutin and quercetin present in Buckwheat
(Fagopyrum esculentum), onion, berries, and apples provide protection against
inflammation and cancer (Singh et al. 2009). Flavonol and kaempferol are widely
25 Bioavailability of Nutrients and Safety Measurements