532
total fats. It is of utmost importance for retina development and growth of the brain.
A lot of factors affect breast milk content after delivery. These includes feed stage,
feeding time and number of pregnancies, whereas lifestyles and maternal diet
(dietary fat content, energy intake) are less relevant in severe malnutrition cases
(Sauerwald et al. 2001). Indeed, the long-term intake of feed is reflected by release
of deposits in the maternal compartment. Therefore, there is no need to change the
overall intake of fat during pregnancy and lactation (Koletzko et al. 2007).
24.5 Micronutrients
Requirement for micronutrients as compared to macronutrients increases during
pregnancy, and its intake in less amount (in case of low nutritional diet) can cause
significant health issues for both the developing fetus and mother. Micronutrients
played a fundamental role to support vitamins in their physiological activity
(Trumbo et al. 2002; Koletzko et al. 2013).
24.5.1 Iron
The active involvement of iron, which is the functional part of myoglobin, haemoglobin and many other enzymes, plays an important role in oxygen transfer to tissues of the body. If iron deficiency occurs, anaemia may set in. Many enzymatic
processes are carried out by the active involvement of iron. The deficiency affects
22% of women in European countries at childbearing age and 50% in developing
areas. Children between the age of 6 and 36 months are more likely to have an iron
deficiency (Stevens et al. 2013; Eussen et al. 2015). Meat, poultry, green leafy vegetables and legumes are the main dietary sources of iron. Iron may be present as a
non-heme and its absorption is related to the composition of diet and individual’s
nutritional status. For example, polyphenols and phytates have the potential to resist
non-heme iron absorption associated with ascorbic acid or fish and meat consumption. The human body can consume non-heme iron (2–13%) and heme iron (25%)
(Società di Nutrizione Umana 2014).
When a woman becomes pregnant, she raises her iron needs until the third month
of pregnancy. Iron controls a transition from the maternal compartment to the fetus
through a complex transport mechanism consisting of release from the maternal
liver followed by processing in the form of ferritin and then uptaken by placenta and
smooth transfer to the fetus with the aid of specific protein, oxidation to Fe
3+
and
then storage in the form of ferritin and later transfer into fetal circulation system
(Cetin et al. 2011). When women require higher concentrations of iron during gestation, insufficient intake can cause iron deficiency in pregnant mothers, which can
have a negative impact on fetal development and growth. However, the risk of low
birth weight, premature delivery and post-partum haemorrhages may be increased
S. Hassan et al.
total fats. It is of utmost importance for retina development and growth of the brain.
A lot of factors affect breast milk content after delivery. These includes feed stage,
feeding time and number of pregnancies, whereas lifestyles and maternal diet
(dietary fat content, energy intake) are less relevant in severe malnutrition cases
(Sauerwald et al. 2001). Indeed, the long-term intake of feed is reflected by release
of deposits in the maternal compartment. Therefore, there is no need to change the
overall intake of fat during pregnancy and lactation (Koletzko et al. 2007).
24.5 Micronutrients
Requirement for micronutrients as compared to macronutrients increases during
pregnancy, and its intake in less amount (in case of low nutritional diet) can cause
significant health issues for both the developing fetus and mother. Micronutrients
played a fundamental role to support vitamins in their physiological activity
(Trumbo et al. 2002; Koletzko et al. 2013).
24.5.1 Iron
The active involvement of iron, which is the functional part of myoglobin, haemoglobin and many other enzymes, plays an important role in oxygen transfer to tissues of the body. If iron deficiency occurs, anaemia may set in. Many enzymatic
processes are carried out by the active involvement of iron. The deficiency affects
22% of women in European countries at childbearing age and 50% in developing
areas. Children between the age of 6 and 36 months are more likely to have an iron
deficiency (Stevens et al. 2013; Eussen et al. 2015). Meat, poultry, green leafy vegetables and legumes are the main dietary sources of iron. Iron may be present as a
non-heme and its absorption is related to the composition of diet and individual’s
nutritional status. For example, polyphenols and phytates have the potential to resist
non-heme iron absorption associated with ascorbic acid or fish and meat consumption. The human body can consume non-heme iron (2–13%) and heme iron (25%)
(Società di Nutrizione Umana 2014).
When a woman becomes pregnant, she raises her iron needs until the third month
of pregnancy. Iron controls a transition from the maternal compartment to the fetus
through a complex transport mechanism consisting of release from the maternal
liver followed by processing in the form of ferritin and then uptaken by placenta and
smooth transfer to the fetus with the aid of specific protein, oxidation to Fe
3+
and
then storage in the form of ferritin and later transfer into fetal circulation system
(Cetin et al. 2011). When women require higher concentrations of iron during gestation, insufficient intake can cause iron deficiency in pregnant mothers, which can
have a negative impact on fetal development and growth. However, the risk of low
birth weight, premature delivery and post-partum haemorrhages may be increased
S. Hassan et al.