4.3.1 Availability of Biomass
Recently, biomass has received an utmost interest and attention as an alternative
energy source for the conventional fossil fuels due to the growing of exhaustion of
fossil fuels and energy demand worldwide. As biomass has been widely seen as an
effective substitute for the conventional fossil fuels, the assessment on the resource
and its availability need to be performed (Sudha and Ravindranath 1999). This is to
ensure the sustainability of present consumption patterns and feasibility on
introducing the applications of a modern biomass fuel-based on a global level.
The global land area is about 13.2 billion ha and currently, about 12% of global
area is under the cultivation of agricultural crops, 28% under forest, and 35% under
grasslands and woodland ecosystems. Huge quantities of agricultural wastes are
generated from the agricultural and forestry related activities. With the abundant
bioenergy resources, it is crucial to implement the latest waste-to-energy
technologies to tap the potential biomass resources (Zafar 2019). Asia is a key
supplier of biomass feedstocks to markets such as Europe or the United States of
America. Particularly, Southeast Asia with its huge biomass resources holds a
strategic position in the global biomass energy atlas (Tun et al. 2019).
Rice and wheat are predominant crops in Southeast Asia (Carlos and Khang
2008). In Southeast Asia, Malaysia is blessed with the large palm oil cultivation.
Malaysia is the world’s leading exporter of palm oil. More than 19.9 million tonnes
of palm oil has been exported in year 2017 (Nambiappan et al. 2018). However,
huge waste were generated during the extraction of the palm oil from the palm fruit
bunch. Out of palm oil processing yield, only 10% are finished products, while the
remaining 90% are harvestable biomass waste in the form of palm kernel shells,
empty fruit bunches, and mesocarp fibres. Production of oil palm is about 17.32
million tonnes per year which subsequently has generated up to 100 million tonnes
of waste (MPOB 2017). Mostly, these biomass are left on the field to act as a soil
amendment or organic fertilizer which plays a crucial role to ensure the sustainability
of plantations and preserve soil fertility. However, due to the abundant of these
waste, it could lead to the environmental pollution if not fully utilized.
Sago palm is also widely distributed and scattered in Southeast Asia specifically
Malaysia, Indonesia, and Philippines. In the recent past, sago flour started to become
one of the main agricultural export item (Karim et al. 2008). The export value of sago
was reportedly increasing by 15–20% per year (Department of Agriculture Sarawak
2010). High production of sago products will significantly increase the amount of
waste generated from this industry, which may lead to a large proportion of
environmental issues.
4.3.2 Chemical Composition of Biomass
Starch-based biomass is made up of glycan, macromolecules of glucose and held
together by α-1,4 and α-1,6 glycosidic bonds (Alias 2009). At the end of the
polysaccharide chain, there is a presence of latent aldehyde group. It is important
72
N. H. Alias et al.
Recently, biomass has received an utmost interest and attention as an alternative
energy source for the conventional fossil fuels due to the growing of exhaustion of
fossil fuels and energy demand worldwide. As biomass has been widely seen as an
effective substitute for the conventional fossil fuels, the assessment on the resource
and its availability need to be performed (Sudha and Ravindranath 1999). This is to
ensure the sustainability of present consumption patterns and feasibility on
introducing the applications of a modern biomass fuel-based on a global level.
The global land area is about 13.2 billion ha and currently, about 12% of global
area is under the cultivation of agricultural crops, 28% under forest, and 35% under
grasslands and woodland ecosystems. Huge quantities of agricultural wastes are
generated from the agricultural and forestry related activities. With the abundant
bioenergy resources, it is crucial to implement the latest waste-to-energy
technologies to tap the potential biomass resources (Zafar 2019). Asia is a key
supplier of biomass feedstocks to markets such as Europe or the United States of
America. Particularly, Southeast Asia with its huge biomass resources holds a
strategic position in the global biomass energy atlas (Tun et al. 2019).
Rice and wheat are predominant crops in Southeast Asia (Carlos and Khang
2008). In Southeast Asia, Malaysia is blessed with the large palm oil cultivation.
Malaysia is the world’s leading exporter of palm oil. More than 19.9 million tonnes
of palm oil has been exported in year 2017 (Nambiappan et al. 2018). However,
huge waste were generated during the extraction of the palm oil from the palm fruit
bunch. Out of palm oil processing yield, only 10% are finished products, while the
remaining 90% are harvestable biomass waste in the form of palm kernel shells,
empty fruit bunches, and mesocarp fibres. Production of oil palm is about 17.32
million tonnes per year which subsequently has generated up to 100 million tonnes
of waste (MPOB 2017). Mostly, these biomass are left on the field to act as a soil
amendment or organic fertilizer which plays a crucial role to ensure the sustainability
of plantations and preserve soil fertility. However, due to the abundant of these
waste, it could lead to the environmental pollution if not fully utilized.
Sago palm is also widely distributed and scattered in Southeast Asia specifically
Malaysia, Indonesia, and Philippines. In the recent past, sago flour started to become
one of the main agricultural export item (Karim et al. 2008). The export value of sago
was reportedly increasing by 15–20% per year (Department of Agriculture Sarawak
2010). High production of sago products will significantly increase the amount of
waste generated from this industry, which may lead to a large proportion of
environmental issues.
4.3.2 Chemical Composition of Biomass
Starch-based biomass is made up of glycan, macromolecules of glucose and held
together by α-1,4 and α-1,6 glycosidic bonds (Alias 2009). At the end of the
polysaccharide chain, there is a presence of latent aldehyde group. It is important
72
N. H. Alias et al.