livelihood (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2009). With the
current rate of biodiversity loss, it is to be expected that there is dire need for
mitigation and adaptation measures (Priti et al. 2016). Human-mediated climate
warming has resulted in changes in species habitat and distribution and in phenological changes, although seldom resulting in species extinction (Priti et al. 2016).
Phenology has been described as one of the best described and well-publicised
phenomena linking global warming to plant communities (Wolf et al. 2017), and
describing this link between forest phenology and climate change, mitigation, and
adaptation efforts is the focus of this discourse.
The forest type of a biogeographical region is a characteristic feature of that
region, an outcome of habitat selection as well as gradual adaptation to climatic
conditions required for its sustenance (Richardson et al. 2013). Research on plant
phenology mainly describes the series of biological changes taking place in plants
during their life cycle combined with seasonal progression, which is mainly caused
by the combined effect of changes in the abiotic and biotic factors of a region (Lieth
1974). Abiotic factors such as rainfall pattern, sunlight availability, temperature, and
soil type, which govern the climate of a region, also regulate the plant phenophases.
Therefore, past records of phenological events guide us to notice the pattern of
changes in seasonal phenomenon over a period of time. When recording the fruiting
period, the flowering period of a particular ecosystem, we know the time of seasonal
changes taking place in that ecosystem. The study of phenology provides us with
information regarding the availability of resources in an ecosystem by the fruiting
and flowering period, the resilience of vegetation to follow a particular phenological
cycle in spite of environmental stresses or resource depletion.
Forests contain a high level of species diversity that displays a number of
phenological events such as leaf drop, leaf flushing, flowering, and fruiting in
relationship to time and space (Negi and Singh 1992; Singh and Singh 1992;
Justiniano and Fredericksen 2000). The phenology of a forest mainly depends on
the types of species present in the forest: the species found in a forest differ from one
another in such matters as their season of onset, the falling patterns of leaves, and the
flowering season. Hence, forest phenology constitutes the overall changes in the
forest in different seasons and the combined effects of the types of plants species
found in the forest. Local climate, which is the result of combined effects of the
abiotic factors of a region, dominantly influences the plant growing season. Therefore, it is crucial to know which climatic factors govern particular phenological
behaviour in different plant species (Wolkovich1 et al. 2013). Different types of
forest exist in response to the differences in climate conditions on the Earth, each
with its own phenological characteristics, and particular climatic factors largely
regulate its growing season. The phenology of the boreal forests and temperate
zone forests is mainly driven by temperature, regulating the timing of the onset and
duration of the growing season as well as the time of foliage fall (Kramer et al. 2000).
In contrast, the phenology of the tropical forest and Mediterranean coniferous forests
is mainly controlled by water availability and precipitation patterns (Borchert et al.
2002; Kramer et al. 2000). The correlation between climate change and phenology
can be established by building prolonged records of phenology of individual trees.
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P. Tiwari et al.
current rate of biodiversity loss, it is to be expected that there is dire need for
mitigation and adaptation measures (Priti et al. 2016). Human-mediated climate
warming has resulted in changes in species habitat and distribution and in phenological changes, although seldom resulting in species extinction (Priti et al. 2016).
Phenology has been described as one of the best described and well-publicised
phenomena linking global warming to plant communities (Wolf et al. 2017), and
describing this link between forest phenology and climate change, mitigation, and
adaptation efforts is the focus of this discourse.
The forest type of a biogeographical region is a characteristic feature of that
region, an outcome of habitat selection as well as gradual adaptation to climatic
conditions required for its sustenance (Richardson et al. 2013). Research on plant
phenology mainly describes the series of biological changes taking place in plants
during their life cycle combined with seasonal progression, which is mainly caused
by the combined effect of changes in the abiotic and biotic factors of a region (Lieth
1974). Abiotic factors such as rainfall pattern, sunlight availability, temperature, and
soil type, which govern the climate of a region, also regulate the plant phenophases.
Therefore, past records of phenological events guide us to notice the pattern of
changes in seasonal phenomenon over a period of time. When recording the fruiting
period, the flowering period of a particular ecosystem, we know the time of seasonal
changes taking place in that ecosystem. The study of phenology provides us with
information regarding the availability of resources in an ecosystem by the fruiting
and flowering period, the resilience of vegetation to follow a particular phenological
cycle in spite of environmental stresses or resource depletion.
Forests contain a high level of species diversity that displays a number of
phenological events such as leaf drop, leaf flushing, flowering, and fruiting in
relationship to time and space (Negi and Singh 1992; Singh and Singh 1992;
Justiniano and Fredericksen 2000). The phenology of a forest mainly depends on
the types of species present in the forest: the species found in a forest differ from one
another in such matters as their season of onset, the falling patterns of leaves, and the
flowering season. Hence, forest phenology constitutes the overall changes in the
forest in different seasons and the combined effects of the types of plants species
found in the forest. Local climate, which is the result of combined effects of the
abiotic factors of a region, dominantly influences the plant growing season. Therefore, it is crucial to know which climatic factors govern particular phenological
behaviour in different plant species (Wolkovich1 et al. 2013). Different types of
forest exist in response to the differences in climate conditions on the Earth, each
with its own phenological characteristics, and particular climatic factors largely
regulate its growing season. The phenology of the boreal forests and temperate
zone forests is mainly driven by temperature, regulating the timing of the onset and
duration of the growing season as well as the time of foliage fall (Kramer et al. 2000).
In contrast, the phenology of the tropical forest and Mediterranean coniferous forests
is mainly controlled by water availability and precipitation patterns (Borchert et al.
2002; Kramer et al. 2000). The correlation between climate change and phenology
can be established by building prolonged records of phenology of individual trees.
186
P. Tiwari et al.