In PW treatment, TDS could be removed together with
the organic matter via membrane filtration process with the
help of biological treatment. Study showed that, almost 99%
of DOC and 94% of TDS were successfully rejected in PW
treatment by coupling the ultrafiltration/nanofiltration
(UF/NF) membrane technology with the bioaccumulation
factor (BAF) process (Riley et al. 2016). Besides, membrane
fouling also could be reduced by combination of membrane
separation and biological process. Membrane bioreactor
(MBR), microbial fuel cell (MFC), microbial desalination
cell (MDC) are biologically active membrane processes that
have been studied for PW treatment.
The MBR process was introduced by the late 1960s, as
soon as commercial scale ultrafiltration (UF) and microfiltration (MF) membranes were available. MBR process is a
process where the membrane process like ultrafiltration of
microfiltration combines with biological wastewater treatment. In PW treatment, biological reaction works together
with low-pressure membrane filtration in MBR process in
order to produce high quality effluent without the aid of any
chemicals. The progress in the PW treatment was extensively
investigated. An integrated process comprised of reverse
osmosis, ion exchange and MBR was implemented at the
Pinedale Anticline FPW treatment facility. Besides, removal
of 90% DOC from DJ Basin PW was achieved excellently by
a hybrid reactor of (SBR)-MBR process combined with
hollow fibre UF membrane (0.03 lm) (Frank et al. 2017).
MFC or known as microbial fuel cell is a bioelectrochemical system, where the electric current was driven by the usage of bacteria. MFC use biological treatment
of organic pollutants in saline wastewaters to produce electricity [236]. One of the advantages of the MRC process is it
can operate under an extreme salinity. Study reported that
MFC successfully yield a power density up to 71 mW/m
2
with 42% coulombic efficiency under an extreme salinity of
250 g/L NaCl with the help of appropriate exoelectrogenic
halophiles colonizing the anode (Monzon et al. 2015).
Moreover, the addition of trace levels of exogenous
quorum-sensing signals had increased the generated power
density up to 30%. While the MFC-fed Barnett PW yield a
power output of 47 mW/m
2 and 68% of COD removal.
Since the energy generated by a hypersaline MFC can force
desalination in a CDI unit, it is attainable in using a hybrid
MFC + CDI system for PW treatment (Monzon et al. 2016).
MDC is a biological electrochemical system, where the
electro-active bacteria is implemented to power the in-situ
water desalination. In brief, MDC is a modified MFC that
contains three chambers that detached by a pair of ion
exchange membranes. Salt removal occurred when ion
travels from the middle chamber to the cathode and anode
chambers (Saeed et al. 2015). MDC process is important in
the removal of contaminants and electricity generation.
Desalination performance could be enhanced by coupling
the MDC system with FO or RO process. Compared to the
MDC system, the combination of MDC-FO system minimized the wastewater volume by 64% and improved the
conductivity reduction (99.4%) in saline water two-fold. In
addition, the MFC-MDC system shows high reduction of
conductivity (>85%) from the salt solution containing
10–50 g/L NaCl, suggesting the potential application of this
hybrid membrane technology to desalinate and treat PW
(Zhang and He 2013).
Salt migration issue in the MDC system had been solved
by the introduction of MCDC integrated technology. This
system is operated by combining the MDC with CDI in a
three-chamber configuration (i.e., anode, cathode and middle
chamber). In MCDC, ions will not move to electrode
chambers, because the electrodes capacitor will adsorb it
before any migration occurred. Forrestal et al. (2015) proved
that 2760 (mg/L)/h of TDS rate can be removed by using this
system as well as removal of COD at a combined rate of
170 (mg/L)/h while treating Piceance PW. It is 18 times and
five times faster than the traditional MDC. Stoll et al. (2015)
demonstrated that 0.25–0.28 V of electrical energy for
desalination is being generated by using SGPW contained
sufficient biodegradable organic matter via MCDC system.
Additionally, a 2.2-L MCDC system working continuously
for nearly two years generated 89–131 W/m
3 and success in
removing 75% of COD with 10.2 g/L TDS per day from
actual FPW. Extra water would produce by applied
in-expensive MCDC system by adopting sodium percarbonate as an electron acceptor. Shrestha et al. (2018) proved
that more TDS was removed by MCDC in Bakken PW
wastewater, while MFC manage to give higher COD removal
and better electrical performance compared to MCDC.
3.4 Hybrid Technology in Hydrocarbon
Separation
The speedy advancement in separation industry had brought
many outstanding numerous studies and practices in separating one substance to another substance. Such rapid progress develops an idea to design a hybrid technology in
separation system, not only for good performance result, but
it will establish more sustainable and economical processes.
For instance, energy consumption could be reduced, and
qualities of distillation cuts can be improved by using a
combination of distillation with membrane separation system in separating hydrocarbon. Besides, hybrid technology
may result in significant cut in its capital and operational
cost.
Hybrid distillation combined with vapour membrane separation system had been designed by using mathematical
approach (Caballero et al. 2009). A two stages of path consist
of distillation column and membrane separation system. This
86
M. A. B. Pauzan et al.
the organic matter via membrane filtration process with the
help of biological treatment. Study showed that, almost 99%
of DOC and 94% of TDS were successfully rejected in PW
treatment by coupling the ultrafiltration/nanofiltration
(UF/NF) membrane technology with the bioaccumulation
factor (BAF) process (Riley et al. 2016). Besides, membrane
fouling also could be reduced by combination of membrane
separation and biological process. Membrane bioreactor
(MBR), microbial fuel cell (MFC), microbial desalination
cell (MDC) are biologically active membrane processes that
have been studied for PW treatment.
The MBR process was introduced by the late 1960s, as
soon as commercial scale ultrafiltration (UF) and microfiltration (MF) membranes were available. MBR process is a
process where the membrane process like ultrafiltration of
microfiltration combines with biological wastewater treatment. In PW treatment, biological reaction works together
with low-pressure membrane filtration in MBR process in
order to produce high quality effluent without the aid of any
chemicals. The progress in the PW treatment was extensively
investigated. An integrated process comprised of reverse
osmosis, ion exchange and MBR was implemented at the
Pinedale Anticline FPW treatment facility. Besides, removal
of 90% DOC from DJ Basin PW was achieved excellently by
a hybrid reactor of (SBR)-MBR process combined with
hollow fibre UF membrane (0.03 lm) (Frank et al. 2017).
MFC or known as microbial fuel cell is a bioelectrochemical system, where the electric current was driven by the usage of bacteria. MFC use biological treatment
of organic pollutants in saline wastewaters to produce electricity [236]. One of the advantages of the MRC process is it
can operate under an extreme salinity. Study reported that
MFC successfully yield a power density up to 71 mW/m
2
with 42% coulombic efficiency under an extreme salinity of
250 g/L NaCl with the help of appropriate exoelectrogenic
halophiles colonizing the anode (Monzon et al. 2015).
Moreover, the addition of trace levels of exogenous
quorum-sensing signals had increased the generated power
density up to 30%. While the MFC-fed Barnett PW yield a
power output of 47 mW/m
2 and 68% of COD removal.
Since the energy generated by a hypersaline MFC can force
desalination in a CDI unit, it is attainable in using a hybrid
MFC + CDI system for PW treatment (Monzon et al. 2016).
MDC is a biological electrochemical system, where the
electro-active bacteria is implemented to power the in-situ
water desalination. In brief, MDC is a modified MFC that
contains three chambers that detached by a pair of ion
exchange membranes. Salt removal occurred when ion
travels from the middle chamber to the cathode and anode
chambers (Saeed et al. 2015). MDC process is important in
the removal of contaminants and electricity generation.
Desalination performance could be enhanced by coupling
the MDC system with FO or RO process. Compared to the
MDC system, the combination of MDC-FO system minimized the wastewater volume by 64% and improved the
conductivity reduction (99.4%) in saline water two-fold. In
addition, the MFC-MDC system shows high reduction of
conductivity (>85%) from the salt solution containing
10–50 g/L NaCl, suggesting the potential application of this
hybrid membrane technology to desalinate and treat PW
(Zhang and He 2013).
Salt migration issue in the MDC system had been solved
by the introduction of MCDC integrated technology. This
system is operated by combining the MDC with CDI in a
three-chamber configuration (i.e., anode, cathode and middle
chamber). In MCDC, ions will not move to electrode
chambers, because the electrodes capacitor will adsorb it
before any migration occurred. Forrestal et al. (2015) proved
that 2760 (mg/L)/h of TDS rate can be removed by using this
system as well as removal of COD at a combined rate of
170 (mg/L)/h while treating Piceance PW. It is 18 times and
five times faster than the traditional MDC. Stoll et al. (2015)
demonstrated that 0.25–0.28 V of electrical energy for
desalination is being generated by using SGPW contained
sufficient biodegradable organic matter via MCDC system.
Additionally, a 2.2-L MCDC system working continuously
for nearly two years generated 89–131 W/m
3 and success in
removing 75% of COD with 10.2 g/L TDS per day from
actual FPW. Extra water would produce by applied
in-expensive MCDC system by adopting sodium percarbonate as an electron acceptor. Shrestha et al. (2018) proved
that more TDS was removed by MCDC in Bakken PW
wastewater, while MFC manage to give higher COD removal
and better electrical performance compared to MCDC.
3.4 Hybrid Technology in Hydrocarbon
Separation
The speedy advancement in separation industry had brought
many outstanding numerous studies and practices in separating one substance to another substance. Such rapid progress develops an idea to design a hybrid technology in
separation system, not only for good performance result, but
it will establish more sustainable and economical processes.
For instance, energy consumption could be reduced, and
qualities of distillation cuts can be improved by using a
combination of distillation with membrane separation system in separating hydrocarbon. Besides, hybrid technology
may result in significant cut in its capital and operational
cost.
Hybrid distillation combined with vapour membrane separation system had been designed by using mathematical
approach (Caballero et al. 2009). A two stages of path consist
of distillation column and membrane separation system. This
86
M. A. B. Pauzan et al.