4 Fuel Cell Applications and Technology
SOFC covers wide range of application from small portable
system until power generation system. Normally, portable
SOFC systems are needed primarily for emergency, transportation utilization and even it is used for certain military
appliance. Seeing that SOFC system having a superior fuel
flexibility characteristic; fuel others than hydrogen could be
feed into the system like JP-8 military fuel, ethanol, gasoline, kerosene, and others hydrocarbon fuels (Irvine and
Connor 2013). Such portable SOFC system generally consumes about milliwatts to hundred watts of power. USA
company such as Adaptive Materials Inc. had been developed such portable system called Amie25 and Amie150
(Narayan and Valdez 2008). This technology base on a
lightweight micro-tubular SOFC and propane utilized as a
fuel. 1700 Wh of energy can be generated from this portable
system that weighed about 1.5 kg, which required 1 kg of
propane. Besides, Protonex Technology Corporation also
offers a portable generator-based SOFC, Valta P75 with an
output of 75 W which fuelled by propane.
Japan is one of the countries that lead in the application of
small SOFC systems for residential combined heat and
power (CHP) units. Generally, the implementation of this
system for residential uses required 1–5 kW power to supply. A company from Japan Kyocera had introduced
anode-supported flat tubular cells. This technology was
coupled together with the hot water tank. In 2005–2006, a
1 kW of this system was operated for the first time and
successfully sustain for 2000 h with 44.1% of electric efficiency and 34% hot water heat recovery efficiency (Irvine
and Connor 2013). In 2017, the same company had launched
the first 3 kW of SOFC cogeneration system for institutional
use. The overall electrical efficiency of this system achieves
nearly 90% with exhaust heat recovery. Other company such
as Toto Ltd. (Japan) also had introduced such SOFC-CHP
units which using cathode-supported tubular cell. After all,
numerous organizations such as Hexis (Switzerland), Ceres
Power (UK), Ceramic Fuel Cell Ltd. (Australia), and Siemen
(USA) had commercialized this SOFC-CHP technology
practical for residential use either in planar- or tubular-based
SOFC configurations.
SOFC technology proved its high level of energy efficiency and acquisition when it could be used as a power
generation system. SOFC power generation system firstly
designs and builts in early 1984 (Singhal 2000). By referring
to Singhal (2000), this system had been installed and worked
at the Southern California Edison Company’s Highgrove
Generating Station in Grand Terrace (near San Bernardino),
California, which successfully run for almost 5582 with five
times thermal cycles endurance. Apart from that, Mitsubishi
Hitachi Power system had brought out a hybrid SOFC-micro
gas turbine system. For the record, in September 2013,
model 10 hybrid power generation system can operate for
4100 h during tested at Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd. Senju Techno
Station; while model 15 hybrid power generation system can
achieve 10,000 h operation when demonstrate at the Kyushu
University Ito Campus on October 2016.
On the other hands, PEMFC system usually applied to the
vehicle application, low power generation of the portable
unit along with combined heat and power unit. Mostly,
PEMFC technology would enforce on the transportation
field or fuel cell vehicle (FVC). However, there are still
having extensive focus on stationary and portable applications. PEMFCs promise divers advantages, including low
operating temperature, long stack life, quick start-up, and
compactness which lead to the launched on numerous
applications, technologies along with prototype by different
companies with different backgrounds such as fuel cell
technology (Ballard, Plug Power, Smart fuel cell, Toshiba,
NovArs, and Hydrogenics), (Ford, Nissan, Hyundai, BMW,
Toyota, and, Renault), and electricity-based company (IBM,
Samsung, and NTT) (Wee 2007).
In Taiwan and China, electric-powered bicycle is being
the daily basic transportation. 20–250 kW is needed to
power up the electric car, electric bus as well as utility
vehicle, while 1–50 mW are required for stationary application and 100–1 kW generally for small-scale application
(Shamim et al. 2015). According to Wee (2007), stack
composed of 40 units of PEMFC could generate 378 W of
power for electric bicycle with 35% of fuel cell efficiency.
Mercedes-Benz Citaro fuel cell buses had been launched in
Stockholm city which operate for about 200 km of the
journey which produces the total power of 25 kW. By
referring to Clean Urban Transportation for Europe (CUTE)
program, half of 33 unit buses were run in Europe, 15% in
North America and quarter in Asia regions.
In the meantime, PEMFC portable application being
another focus in fulfilling the high power demands. Instead
of indoor applications like mobile phone, computers, and
digital camcorder; PEMFC portable is also widely utilized
for outdoor conditions. It can be categorized into three
PEMFC stack which are for medium power applications
(forerunner stacks Ballard Mk5); automotive usage (Ballard
Mk902); and OutdoorFC stack (Oszcipok et al. 2006). In
addition, PEMFC could be seen as a good candidate for
stationary power plant applications. PEMFC also being a
great alternative technology in coping with environmental
pollution and energy crises came from the combustion of
fossil fuel for energy sources (Shamim et al. 2015). Altergy
(USA), Ebara Ballard (Japan), P21 (Germany), and ClearEdge (USA) are among of the companies that contribute to
the development and commercialization of small stationary
PEMFC power plants.
120
S. M. Jamil et al.
SOFC covers wide range of application from small portable
system until power generation system. Normally, portable
SOFC systems are needed primarily for emergency, transportation utilization and even it is used for certain military
appliance. Seeing that SOFC system having a superior fuel
flexibility characteristic; fuel others than hydrogen could be
feed into the system like JP-8 military fuel, ethanol, gasoline, kerosene, and others hydrocarbon fuels (Irvine and
Connor 2013). Such portable SOFC system generally consumes about milliwatts to hundred watts of power. USA
company such as Adaptive Materials Inc. had been developed such portable system called Amie25 and Amie150
(Narayan and Valdez 2008). This technology base on a
lightweight micro-tubular SOFC and propane utilized as a
fuel. 1700 Wh of energy can be generated from this portable
system that weighed about 1.5 kg, which required 1 kg of
propane. Besides, Protonex Technology Corporation also
offers a portable generator-based SOFC, Valta P75 with an
output of 75 W which fuelled by propane.
Japan is one of the countries that lead in the application of
small SOFC systems for residential combined heat and
power (CHP) units. Generally, the implementation of this
system for residential uses required 1–5 kW power to supply. A company from Japan Kyocera had introduced
anode-supported flat tubular cells. This technology was
coupled together with the hot water tank. In 2005–2006, a
1 kW of this system was operated for the first time and
successfully sustain for 2000 h with 44.1% of electric efficiency and 34% hot water heat recovery efficiency (Irvine
and Connor 2013). In 2017, the same company had launched
the first 3 kW of SOFC cogeneration system for institutional
use. The overall electrical efficiency of this system achieves
nearly 90% with exhaust heat recovery. Other company such
as Toto Ltd. (Japan) also had introduced such SOFC-CHP
units which using cathode-supported tubular cell. After all,
numerous organizations such as Hexis (Switzerland), Ceres
Power (UK), Ceramic Fuel Cell Ltd. (Australia), and Siemen
(USA) had commercialized this SOFC-CHP technology
practical for residential use either in planar- or tubular-based
SOFC configurations.
SOFC technology proved its high level of energy efficiency and acquisition when it could be used as a power
generation system. SOFC power generation system firstly
designs and builts in early 1984 (Singhal 2000). By referring
to Singhal (2000), this system had been installed and worked
at the Southern California Edison Company’s Highgrove
Generating Station in Grand Terrace (near San Bernardino),
California, which successfully run for almost 5582 with five
times thermal cycles endurance. Apart from that, Mitsubishi
Hitachi Power system had brought out a hybrid SOFC-micro
gas turbine system. For the record, in September 2013,
model 10 hybrid power generation system can operate for
4100 h during tested at Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd. Senju Techno
Station; while model 15 hybrid power generation system can
achieve 10,000 h operation when demonstrate at the Kyushu
University Ito Campus on October 2016.
On the other hands, PEMFC system usually applied to the
vehicle application, low power generation of the portable
unit along with combined heat and power unit. Mostly,
PEMFC technology would enforce on the transportation
field or fuel cell vehicle (FVC). However, there are still
having extensive focus on stationary and portable applications. PEMFCs promise divers advantages, including low
operating temperature, long stack life, quick start-up, and
compactness which lead to the launched on numerous
applications, technologies along with prototype by different
companies with different backgrounds such as fuel cell
technology (Ballard, Plug Power, Smart fuel cell, Toshiba,
NovArs, and Hydrogenics), (Ford, Nissan, Hyundai, BMW,
Toyota, and, Renault), and electricity-based company (IBM,
Samsung, and NTT) (Wee 2007).
In Taiwan and China, electric-powered bicycle is being
the daily basic transportation. 20–250 kW is needed to
power up the electric car, electric bus as well as utility
vehicle, while 1–50 mW are required for stationary application and 100–1 kW generally for small-scale application
(Shamim et al. 2015). According to Wee (2007), stack
composed of 40 units of PEMFC could generate 378 W of
power for electric bicycle with 35% of fuel cell efficiency.
Mercedes-Benz Citaro fuel cell buses had been launched in
Stockholm city which operate for about 200 km of the
journey which produces the total power of 25 kW. By
referring to Clean Urban Transportation for Europe (CUTE)
program, half of 33 unit buses were run in Europe, 15% in
North America and quarter in Asia regions.
In the meantime, PEMFC portable application being
another focus in fulfilling the high power demands. Instead
of indoor applications like mobile phone, computers, and
digital camcorder; PEMFC portable is also widely utilized
for outdoor conditions. It can be categorized into three
PEMFC stack which are for medium power applications
(forerunner stacks Ballard Mk5); automotive usage (Ballard
Mk902); and OutdoorFC stack (Oszcipok et al. 2006). In
addition, PEMFC could be seen as a good candidate for
stationary power plant applications. PEMFC also being a
great alternative technology in coping with environmental
pollution and energy crises came from the combustion of
fossil fuel for energy sources (Shamim et al. 2015). Altergy
(USA), Ebara Ballard (Japan), P21 (Germany), and ClearEdge (USA) are among of the companies that contribute to
the development and commercialization of small stationary
PEMFC power plants.
120
S. M. Jamil et al.