are more likely to live near roadways, resulting in
greater exposure [117]. In their study of London,
MacKerron and Mourato [120] observed that
communities with the least car ownership are
exposed to the highest concentration of pollutants,
while the cleanest air tends to be in communities
where car ownership is greatest. Marshall et al.
[121] shows that lower-income neighborhoods
tend to have higher walkability (resulting in less
auto emissions), but also higher NO concentrations, while higher income neighborhoods tend to
have lower NO and O 3 concentrations. In these
cases, the injustice is that the people polluting the
most impose the cost of their pollution on those
polluting least. Identification of such injustices
should be a focus of air pollution monitoring.
Routine increased exposure itself may enhance
the impacts of air pollution on socioeconomically
disadvantaged groups by weakening normal biological resistance [117] or promoting atherosclerosis [118]. Housing stock in poorer
neighborhoods can have higher rates of offgassing of some allergens and expose occupants
to other risk factors of asthma sensitization and
exacerbation [117]. These phenomena require
greater documentation by air pollution monitoring
agencies so that they can be addressed.
Often young families cannot afford to live in
more affluent neighborhoods and must purchase
lower cost housing. This situation has lead to
findings such as those of Mitchell and Dorling
[119], that pollution in London is most concentrated where young children and their parents live.
London wards with a high proportion of all babies
in the city tend to have much higher than average
concentrations of NO 2 . This injustice is exposing
pregnant women, children, and babies (segments
of the population very vulnerable to the health
effects of air pollution) to greater air pollution
concentrations than those more resistant.
Much environmental justice work has been
done in the USA to attempt to redress the effects
of the frequent location of landfills and polluting
industries in black and indigenous communities.
A lack of empirical evidence led to failure of
many of the class actions meant to address environmental injustice [119]. Air pollution monitoring should be used to supply empirical evidence
where environmental injustice exists. As O’Neill
et al. [117] state, “Science and public policy
would benefit from additional research that integrates the theory and practice from both air pollution and social epidemiologies to gain a better
understanding of this issue.”
Improved Urban Form Design of urban form
can mitigate exposure and reduce emissions
[5]. Urban sprawl results in increased automobile
dependency and the associated emissions
[122]. Many studies have witnessed the negative
correlation between urban density and per capita
transportation emissions [123]. Frank et al. [124]
makes the connection between neighborhood
walkability and reduced vehicle emissions. The
US EPA has acknowledged the relationship
between urban form and emissions through its
program of offering urban nonattainment areas
emissions credits for “smart growth” development
practices [123]. Conventionally, air pollution mitigation has been technology oriented, and Stone
[123] claims that the EPA’s program of emissions
credits for intelligent urban design is an acknowledgement that the technological approach alone is
not sufficient to solve air pollution problems. This
recognition reinforces the point that sustainable
solutions must be holistic and that no single avenue leads to sustainability. Air pollution problems
cannot be solved by dealing with the emission
sources alone, there must be systemic redesign
of the landscapes that create demand for emitting
activities.
The air pollution monitoring community can
play a role in urban design for emissions reduction. One major contribution would be taking
stock of various types of urban forms that exist
and the contribution of those forms to emissions.
Tang and Wang [125] look at the four different
urban forms on the Macau peninsula and associate
form with emissions and air pollution. Observations connecting road width, road curvature, and
congestion with emissions were made, and it was
seen that features such as urban canyons can lead
to increased pollution in areas of cities least
responsible for total emissions. Other features
Tang and Wang [125] recommend for study
include street orientation in relation to wind
410
Air Pollution Monitoring and Sustainability
greater exposure [117]. In their study of London,
MacKerron and Mourato [120] observed that
communities with the least car ownership are
exposed to the highest concentration of pollutants,
while the cleanest air tends to be in communities
where car ownership is greatest. Marshall et al.
[121] shows that lower-income neighborhoods
tend to have higher walkability (resulting in less
auto emissions), but also higher NO concentrations, while higher income neighborhoods tend to
have lower NO and O 3 concentrations. In these
cases, the injustice is that the people polluting the
most impose the cost of their pollution on those
polluting least. Identification of such injustices
should be a focus of air pollution monitoring.
Routine increased exposure itself may enhance
the impacts of air pollution on socioeconomically
disadvantaged groups by weakening normal biological resistance [117] or promoting atherosclerosis [118]. Housing stock in poorer
neighborhoods can have higher rates of offgassing of some allergens and expose occupants
to other risk factors of asthma sensitization and
exacerbation [117]. These phenomena require
greater documentation by air pollution monitoring
agencies so that they can be addressed.
Often young families cannot afford to live in
more affluent neighborhoods and must purchase
lower cost housing. This situation has lead to
findings such as those of Mitchell and Dorling
[119], that pollution in London is most concentrated where young children and their parents live.
London wards with a high proportion of all babies
in the city tend to have much higher than average
concentrations of NO 2 . This injustice is exposing
pregnant women, children, and babies (segments
of the population very vulnerable to the health
effects of air pollution) to greater air pollution
concentrations than those more resistant.
Much environmental justice work has been
done in the USA to attempt to redress the effects
of the frequent location of landfills and polluting
industries in black and indigenous communities.
A lack of empirical evidence led to failure of
many of the class actions meant to address environmental injustice [119]. Air pollution monitoring should be used to supply empirical evidence
where environmental injustice exists. As O’Neill
et al. [117] state, “Science and public policy
would benefit from additional research that integrates the theory and practice from both air pollution and social epidemiologies to gain a better
understanding of this issue.”
Improved Urban Form Design of urban form
can mitigate exposure and reduce emissions
[5]. Urban sprawl results in increased automobile
dependency and the associated emissions
[122]. Many studies have witnessed the negative
correlation between urban density and per capita
transportation emissions [123]. Frank et al. [124]
makes the connection between neighborhood
walkability and reduced vehicle emissions. The
US EPA has acknowledged the relationship
between urban form and emissions through its
program of offering urban nonattainment areas
emissions credits for “smart growth” development
practices [123]. Conventionally, air pollution mitigation has been technology oriented, and Stone
[123] claims that the EPA’s program of emissions
credits for intelligent urban design is an acknowledgement that the technological approach alone is
not sufficient to solve air pollution problems. This
recognition reinforces the point that sustainable
solutions must be holistic and that no single avenue leads to sustainability. Air pollution problems
cannot be solved by dealing with the emission
sources alone, there must be systemic redesign
of the landscapes that create demand for emitting
activities.
The air pollution monitoring community can
play a role in urban design for emissions reduction. One major contribution would be taking
stock of various types of urban forms that exist
and the contribution of those forms to emissions.
Tang and Wang [125] look at the four different
urban forms on the Macau peninsula and associate
form with emissions and air pollution. Observations connecting road width, road curvature, and
congestion with emissions were made, and it was
seen that features such as urban canyons can lead
to increased pollution in areas of cities least
responsible for total emissions. Other features
Tang and Wang [125] recommend for study
include street orientation in relation to wind
410
Air Pollution Monitoring and Sustainability