Economy
Restricted activity and lost work days due to illness incurred by air pollution are included in the
costs of poor air quality [20]. These are costs
both to the individual suffering the illness
(in terms of income) and to industry (in terms of
lost productivity). Time lost by caregivers, for
example, the parents that miss work to care for
an ill child, also results in financial costs
[62]. Healthcare costs, including the fees of
healthcare professionals and operating costs, are
also a problem. Pain and suffering has a cost that
can be estimated by the price an individual is
willing to pay to avoid experiencing it [62]. Similarly, the amount people are willing to pay to
avoid risk of premature death can be used to
estimate the cost of mortality [63].
Loss of detail in carvings, discoloration of
materials, failure of protective coatings, and structural failure are some of the outcomes of material
damage from air pollution [64]. These outcomes
are the result of acid deposition on materials and
oxidation from pollutants like ozone. Delucchi’s
[65] review of cost estimates in the literature
yielded an estimate of $0.1–3 billion in material
damage annually in the USA from ozone. SO x and
PM are estimated to do at least as much damage as
ozone [65]. Mayerhofer et al. [64] estimated that
the damage from 1995 levels of air pollution cost
Europe 2.3–5.3 trillion European Currency Units
(ECU, 1995 value) in that year. Calcareous rock
(marble and limestone) is vulnerable to air pollution [66], and many historical monuments and
structures are made of such materials.
Ozone can enter plant leaves and damage
enzymes critical to photosynthesis, reducing the
metabolism of plants and limiting plant growth
[67, 68]. Ozone, other oxidants, SO x , and NO x are
thought to be responsible for 90% of damage to
plants from air pollution [68]. Damage to crops
results in less revenue for agricultural producers.
Murphy et al. [67] estimate that in 1990, anthropogenic ozone caused $2.8–5.8 billion in damage
to 8 major crops in the USA (corn, soybeans,
wheat, alfalfa hay, cotton, grain sorghum, rice,
barley). Barley and soybeans are particularly sensitive to damage from SO 2 [67]. Subsidies to these
crops in the USA are on the order of billions [69],
meaning that American taxpayers are providing
substantial economic recompense for air pollution’s damage to crops.
There are a number of services of economic
value delivered by ecological systems, including
dilution and treatment of wastes, employment,
sequestration of carbon, provision of oxygen, and
production of goods such as timber, potable water,
and irrigation water [55]. The US EPA, 1997 [20]
adds pesticides and drugs to the list of products
derived from ecosystems as well as recreation,
reduced runoff, and reduced erosion to the list of
services of economic value. Efforts have been
made to estimate some of the economic effects of
air pollution’s impacts on ecosystems such as wetlands, forests, and aquatic ecosystems, but realistic
estimates are difficult to reach [20]. Both the data
and the tools to make complete estimates are
lacking [20], as is the discourse to address some
forms of ecosystem damage. The effects of local
wilderness areas on property value are easier to
estimate and work has been done in this area
[70]. Such estimates can quantify some portion of
the costs of the expansion of denuded zones and the
limitations to ecosystem development discussed
above. However, property values are just one of
many economic impacts associated with pollution,
leaving complete costs figures out of reach.
An evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of the
Clean Air Act (USA) over the 1970–1990 period
showed that the cost of compliance with the act
was $523 billion and gave the central estimate of
the economic benefits as $22.2 trillion [20]. This
estimate of benefits does not include complete
evaluations of ecosystem benefits. The 1990
amendments to the Clean Air Act created
market-based mechanisms for trading of SO 2 in
an effort to reduce emissions and emissions were
reduced by 40% between 1990 and 2007. Over the
same period, 25 member countries of the EU
reduced SO 2 emissions by 70% using conventional, non-market-based legislation [71].
Global Problems
Air pollution and its effects do not respect national
boundaries. Regardless of the location of the point
of emission, some problems arising from air pollution affect multiple countries. Some, like the
394
Air Pollution Monitoring and Sustainability
Restricted activity and lost work days due to illness incurred by air pollution are included in the
costs of poor air quality [20]. These are costs
both to the individual suffering the illness
(in terms of income) and to industry (in terms of
lost productivity). Time lost by caregivers, for
example, the parents that miss work to care for
an ill child, also results in financial costs
[62]. Healthcare costs, including the fees of
healthcare professionals and operating costs, are
also a problem. Pain and suffering has a cost that
can be estimated by the price an individual is
willing to pay to avoid experiencing it [62]. Similarly, the amount people are willing to pay to
avoid risk of premature death can be used to
estimate the cost of mortality [63].
Loss of detail in carvings, discoloration of
materials, failure of protective coatings, and structural failure are some of the outcomes of material
damage from air pollution [64]. These outcomes
are the result of acid deposition on materials and
oxidation from pollutants like ozone. Delucchi’s
[65] review of cost estimates in the literature
yielded an estimate of $0.1–3 billion in material
damage annually in the USA from ozone. SO x and
PM are estimated to do at least as much damage as
ozone [65]. Mayerhofer et al. [64] estimated that
the damage from 1995 levels of air pollution cost
Europe 2.3–5.3 trillion European Currency Units
(ECU, 1995 value) in that year. Calcareous rock
(marble and limestone) is vulnerable to air pollution [66], and many historical monuments and
structures are made of such materials.
Ozone can enter plant leaves and damage
enzymes critical to photosynthesis, reducing the
metabolism of plants and limiting plant growth
[67, 68]. Ozone, other oxidants, SO x , and NO x are
thought to be responsible for 90% of damage to
plants from air pollution [68]. Damage to crops
results in less revenue for agricultural producers.
Murphy et al. [67] estimate that in 1990, anthropogenic ozone caused $2.8–5.8 billion in damage
to 8 major crops in the USA (corn, soybeans,
wheat, alfalfa hay, cotton, grain sorghum, rice,
barley). Barley and soybeans are particularly sensitive to damage from SO 2 [67]. Subsidies to these
crops in the USA are on the order of billions [69],
meaning that American taxpayers are providing
substantial economic recompense for air pollution’s damage to crops.
There are a number of services of economic
value delivered by ecological systems, including
dilution and treatment of wastes, employment,
sequestration of carbon, provision of oxygen, and
production of goods such as timber, potable water,
and irrigation water [55]. The US EPA, 1997 [20]
adds pesticides and drugs to the list of products
derived from ecosystems as well as recreation,
reduced runoff, and reduced erosion to the list of
services of economic value. Efforts have been
made to estimate some of the economic effects of
air pollution’s impacts on ecosystems such as wetlands, forests, and aquatic ecosystems, but realistic
estimates are difficult to reach [20]. Both the data
and the tools to make complete estimates are
lacking [20], as is the discourse to address some
forms of ecosystem damage. The effects of local
wilderness areas on property value are easier to
estimate and work has been done in this area
[70]. Such estimates can quantify some portion of
the costs of the expansion of denuded zones and the
limitations to ecosystem development discussed
above. However, property values are just one of
many economic impacts associated with pollution,
leaving complete costs figures out of reach.
An evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of the
Clean Air Act (USA) over the 1970–1990 period
showed that the cost of compliance with the act
was $523 billion and gave the central estimate of
the economic benefits as $22.2 trillion [20]. This
estimate of benefits does not include complete
evaluations of ecosystem benefits. The 1990
amendments to the Clean Air Act created
market-based mechanisms for trading of SO 2 in
an effort to reduce emissions and emissions were
reduced by 40% between 1990 and 2007. Over the
same period, 25 member countries of the EU
reduced SO 2 emissions by 70% using conventional, non-market-based legislation [71].
Global Problems
Air pollution and its effects do not respect national
boundaries. Regardless of the location of the point
of emission, some problems arising from air pollution affect multiple countries. Some, like the
394
Air Pollution Monitoring and Sustainability