Domestication of both plants and animals
played a critical role in the development of
agriculture-based societies and the growth of
communities. The agricultural base influenced
the size of communities and their proximity to
one another. The ability to transport essential
foodstuffs by ship or overland by horses, camels,
and oxen allowed cities to emerge. With larger
communities came increased air pollution and
the impact of an individual family’s pollution on
their neighbors and vice versa.
Coal apparently was first used as a fuel in the
Far East. The introduction of coal as an energy
source in the Western world followed Marco
Polo’s return to the west from his trip to the
more advanced societies of the Far East. As
early as the thirteenth century, there was concern
over coal smoke and odor in London, and the
Queen of England reportedly moved from
London to Nottingham because of the insufferable
smoke. In 1661, John Evelyn published
Fumifugium: Or the Inconvenience of the Air
and Smoke of London Dissipated, which drew
attention to the problem for air pollution.
The industrial revolution in the early years was
dependent on wood as a fuel, and therefore, industry was located near forests. This restriction
served as a throttle on industrial development.
The development of effective steam engines in
the eighteenth century provided a major impetus
for the use of coal as a fuel. With coal, the pace of
industrial activity increased, and factories developed near sources of coal and along the waterways
that served to efficiently transport the coal. The
smoke and ash from coal-fired boilers in factories,
power plants, and locomotives increasingly
became of concern. Interestingly, this concern
about air pollution was stimulated by impairment
of visibility and soiling as well as effects on
health. In addition, the damage to vegetation
from emissions produced in the smelting of sulfide ores gave clear evidence of yet another effect
of air pollution. Air pollution problems were recognized in many industrial countries in the late
nineteenth century, but the problem was probably
nowhere as apparent as in London. The high
levels of pollutants combined with the notorious
London fog created a serious problem and is
reputed to have given rise to the term smog, a
contraction of smoke and fog.
The development of steam engines soon led to
their use in sea-going vessels that initially
depended heavily on coal as a fuel. Later, coal
would be replaced by oil as a fuel. Emissions from
ships did not attract major attention until the late
twentieth century when concern developed for air
emissions when the ships were near land and
especially when in harbor.
With the discovery of electricity a revolution
occurred in the generation and use of energy.
More appropriately, it is the conversion of energy
from one form to another, for example, from coal
to thermal energy to electric energy that could be
easily transmitted. It was now possible to generate
electricity with coal as an energy source at one
location and transport it over long distances for
use at multiple locations. Over the course of the
twentieth century the generation of electricity
from the combustion of fossil fuels in large
power plants continuously grew, first in heavily
industrialized countries and, ultimately, around
the world.
In the 1900s, a series of incidents drew attention to air pollution as a serious and even acute
health problem. In December 1930, static atmospheric conditions in the Meuse Valley of Belgium resulted in pollution that caused over
60 deaths and hundreds of illnesses. In December
1952, smog in London resulted in about 4,000
deaths, principally among the infirm, the old,
and those with respiratory diseases. The effects
were not restricted to humans. Acute respiratory
symptoms were also reported in cattle at the
Smithfield Club livestock show. The effects may
have been most severe in the heavy-weight prize
cattle, who were well cared for and had their litter
and excreta promptly removed. Other cattle that
were not as well cared for apparently fared better,
perhaps because of some benefits of ammonia
from the excreta neutralizing the effects of sulfur
oxides and sulfuric acid. Another major smog
episode in London during December 1962
resulted in 340 deaths.
In October 1948, a particularly calm and stable
meteorology in Donora, Pennsylvania, about
30 km from Pittsburgh, PA, resulted in a 4-day
Air Quality Guidelines and Standards
9
played a critical role in the development of
agriculture-based societies and the growth of
communities. The agricultural base influenced
the size of communities and their proximity to
one another. The ability to transport essential
foodstuffs by ship or overland by horses, camels,
and oxen allowed cities to emerge. With larger
communities came increased air pollution and
the impact of an individual family’s pollution on
their neighbors and vice versa.
Coal apparently was first used as a fuel in the
Far East. The introduction of coal as an energy
source in the Western world followed Marco
Polo’s return to the west from his trip to the
more advanced societies of the Far East. As
early as the thirteenth century, there was concern
over coal smoke and odor in London, and the
Queen of England reportedly moved from
London to Nottingham because of the insufferable
smoke. In 1661, John Evelyn published
Fumifugium: Or the Inconvenience of the Air
and Smoke of London Dissipated, which drew
attention to the problem for air pollution.
The industrial revolution in the early years was
dependent on wood as a fuel, and therefore, industry was located near forests. This restriction
served as a throttle on industrial development.
The development of effective steam engines in
the eighteenth century provided a major impetus
for the use of coal as a fuel. With coal, the pace of
industrial activity increased, and factories developed near sources of coal and along the waterways
that served to efficiently transport the coal. The
smoke and ash from coal-fired boilers in factories,
power plants, and locomotives increasingly
became of concern. Interestingly, this concern
about air pollution was stimulated by impairment
of visibility and soiling as well as effects on
health. In addition, the damage to vegetation
from emissions produced in the smelting of sulfide ores gave clear evidence of yet another effect
of air pollution. Air pollution problems were recognized in many industrial countries in the late
nineteenth century, but the problem was probably
nowhere as apparent as in London. The high
levels of pollutants combined with the notorious
London fog created a serious problem and is
reputed to have given rise to the term smog, a
contraction of smoke and fog.
The development of steam engines soon led to
their use in sea-going vessels that initially
depended heavily on coal as a fuel. Later, coal
would be replaced by oil as a fuel. Emissions from
ships did not attract major attention until the late
twentieth century when concern developed for air
emissions when the ships were near land and
especially when in harbor.
With the discovery of electricity a revolution
occurred in the generation and use of energy.
More appropriately, it is the conversion of energy
from one form to another, for example, from coal
to thermal energy to electric energy that could be
easily transmitted. It was now possible to generate
electricity with coal as an energy source at one
location and transport it over long distances for
use at multiple locations. Over the course of the
twentieth century the generation of electricity
from the combustion of fossil fuels in large
power plants continuously grew, first in heavily
industrialized countries and, ultimately, around
the world.
In the 1900s, a series of incidents drew attention to air pollution as a serious and even acute
health problem. In December 1930, static atmospheric conditions in the Meuse Valley of Belgium resulted in pollution that caused over
60 deaths and hundreds of illnesses. In December
1952, smog in London resulted in about 4,000
deaths, principally among the infirm, the old,
and those with respiratory diseases. The effects
were not restricted to humans. Acute respiratory
symptoms were also reported in cattle at the
Smithfield Club livestock show. The effects may
have been most severe in the heavy-weight prize
cattle, who were well cared for and had their litter
and excreta promptly removed. Other cattle that
were not as well cared for apparently fared better,
perhaps because of some benefits of ammonia
from the excreta neutralizing the effects of sulfur
oxides and sulfuric acid. Another major smog
episode in London during December 1962
resulted in 340 deaths.
In October 1948, a particularly calm and stable
meteorology in Donora, Pennsylvania, about
30 km from Pittsburgh, PA, resulted in a 4-day
Air Quality Guidelines and Standards
9