hydrocarbons (PAHs) (see [2]) or legacy organohalogens [3, 4]. However, due to
evolving chemical regulations, improved analytical capabilities and progress in
ecotoxicological assessment, recent studies have included a wide range of chemicals
and biological contaminants of emerging concern. A small selection of studies
conducted since the 2010s is presented hereafter to illustrate this work, with a
brief overview of recent studies on macro- and microplastics, fluoroalkyl substances,
pathogenic protozoa as well as antibiotics and antibiotic resistance.
2 Macro- and Microplastics
2.1 Context
Water pollution by plastics and microplastics is often described as an emerging
concern. However, in the Seine River basin, boatmen have been complaining since
the 1990s about the presence of plastic bags blocking the cooling circuits of barges.
Prior to 1994, SIAAP (Greater Paris Sanitation Authority) had installed floating
booms to trap macro-waste, including plastics floating on the water surface. However, this highly visible pollution did not attract the attention of public authorities or
aquatic environment managers (e.g. it was not mentioned in the 2000 European
Water Framework Directive) or even environmental protection organisations. However, within the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive released in 2008, litter
was listed as one of the descriptors of good ecological status. Following observations
in the ocean environment (e.g. “great garbage patch” in 1997), this issue, both
abroad and in France, has become a social issue and a research subject for scientists.
Plastics observed in freshwater reach several orders of magnitude in size and a
wide spectrum of shapes. Microplastics were brought to light in 2004 [5] and were
defined as plastic particles whose longest dimension is less than 5 mm [6]. As a
consequence, macroplastics have their longest dimension greater than 5 mm.
Macroplastics are either manufactured plastic items (primary plastics) or fragments
(secondary plastics), and microplastics are mostly secondary plastics categorised
depending on their dimensions: fibres (length )diameter) and fragments (characteristic length)thickness) composed of different irregular shapes and spheres
[6]. More generally, anthropogenic particles (APs) cover a very broad category of
particles produced directly or indirectly by human activities. In the case of the Seine
River, APs are mostly small pieces, fragments or fibres and, regardless of their size,
originating from plastics, dyed particles or textile fibres. Special attention is being
paid to plastic fibres whose production increases by approximately 4% per year
(60,000 tons in 2016, 20% of the world plastic production [7]). Although fibres are
often not included in the key figures concerning plastic materials, they are used in
several industrial sectors including the textile industry. Plastic synthetic fibres
represent the main fraction of the world fibre production, which also includes
other artificial fibres made from natural raw material (e.g. rayon made from cellulose) and natural fibres (e.g. cotton and wool). Fibres are present in the environment
and are produced by the wear and tear of larger items.
Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Seine River Basin: Overview of. . .
357
evolving chemical regulations, improved analytical capabilities and progress in
ecotoxicological assessment, recent studies have included a wide range of chemicals
and biological contaminants of emerging concern. A small selection of studies
conducted since the 2010s is presented hereafter to illustrate this work, with a
brief overview of recent studies on macro- and microplastics, fluoroalkyl substances,
pathogenic protozoa as well as antibiotics and antibiotic resistance.
2 Macro- and Microplastics
2.1 Context
Water pollution by plastics and microplastics is often described as an emerging
concern. However, in the Seine River basin, boatmen have been complaining since
the 1990s about the presence of plastic bags blocking the cooling circuits of barges.
Prior to 1994, SIAAP (Greater Paris Sanitation Authority) had installed floating
booms to trap macro-waste, including plastics floating on the water surface. However, this highly visible pollution did not attract the attention of public authorities or
aquatic environment managers (e.g. it was not mentioned in the 2000 European
Water Framework Directive) or even environmental protection organisations. However, within the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive released in 2008, litter
was listed as one of the descriptors of good ecological status. Following observations
in the ocean environment (e.g. “great garbage patch” in 1997), this issue, both
abroad and in France, has become a social issue and a research subject for scientists.
Plastics observed in freshwater reach several orders of magnitude in size and a
wide spectrum of shapes. Microplastics were brought to light in 2004 [5] and were
defined as plastic particles whose longest dimension is less than 5 mm [6]. As a
consequence, macroplastics have their longest dimension greater than 5 mm.
Macroplastics are either manufactured plastic items (primary plastics) or fragments
(secondary plastics), and microplastics are mostly secondary plastics categorised
depending on their dimensions: fibres (length )diameter) and fragments (characteristic length)thickness) composed of different irregular shapes and spheres
[6]. More generally, anthropogenic particles (APs) cover a very broad category of
particles produced directly or indirectly by human activities. In the case of the Seine
River, APs are mostly small pieces, fragments or fibres and, regardless of their size,
originating from plastics, dyed particles or textile fibres. Special attention is being
paid to plastic fibres whose production increases by approximately 4% per year
(60,000 tons in 2016, 20% of the world plastic production [7]). Although fibres are
often not included in the key figures concerning plastic materials, they are used in
several industrial sectors including the textile industry. Plastic synthetic fibres
represent the main fraction of the world fibre production, which also includes
other artificial fibres made from natural raw material (e.g. rayon made from cellulose) and natural fibres (e.g. cotton and wool). Fibres are present in the environment
and are produced by the wear and tear of larger items.
Contaminants of Emerging Concern in the Seine River Basin: Overview of. . .
357