286
Activated Carbon Obtained from Wastes
To overcome deficiencies of commercial activated carbon, agricultural wastes or
industrial solid wastes are applied for active carbons production. Over the last several years, more attention was paid to such type materials which are considered in
wastewaters purification due to excess of generated wastes, low cost, easy availability, and non-toxicity in nature (Raval et al. 2017; Yagub et al. 2014). As precursors
used in activated carbons production for dyes removal leaves, shells, hulls, stones,
skin of fruit and vegetables, oil palm fibbers, wood, etc. could be applied (Foo and
Hameed 2010). The examples of various precursors used for activated carbons production and application for dye removal are presented below in the following order:
precursor of activated carbons production, dye which is removed, and maximum
sorption capacity:
– Waste apricot, surface area = 1060 m
2
/g, methylene blue 136.98 mg/g (50 °C),
methyl green 163.93 mg/g (50 °C), crystal violet 91.74 mg/g (50 °C) (Basar 2006)
– Palm fruit bunch, basic yellow 21 327 mg/g, basic red 180 mg/g, basic blue
92 mg/g (Nassar and Magdy 1997)
– Oil palm shell, methylene blue 243.90 mg/g (Tan et al. 2008)
– Plum kernel, acid blue 74 388.00 mg/g (Tseng and Wu 2009)
– Organic sugarcane bagasse, acid blue 80 391 mg/g (Valix et al. 2004)
– Sunflower seed hull, acid violet 17 107.52 mg/g (Thinakaran et al. 2008)
– Sludge, acid orange 7 and chrysophenine 83–270 mg/g at temperatures 10–60 °C
(Chiang et al. 2009)
– Sewage sludge (drying at 105 °C, chemical activation using 98% H 2 SO 4 (48 h),
dried at 80 °C, pyrolysis under flow of N 2 (heating rate 15 °C/min up to 625 °C),
washed using 10% HCl (10% by weight) and drying at 105 °C, then ground and
sieved (0.125 and 1.5 mm), surface area = 390 m
2
/g, methylene blue 194.3 mg/g,
safranine 250.2 mg/g (Rozada et al. 2003)
– Natural cellulose: jute, coconut (physical activation, carbonization at 950 °C
under N 2 flow, activation with CO 2 ; chemical activation, impregnation using
30 wt.% H 3 PO 4 (900 °C) for 24 h, washed and heated (20 °C/min) in the N 2 flow
at 900 °C for 2 h, purified using ultra-pure water, subsequently dried at 105 °C,
acid red 27 113.63–181.81 mg/g (Phan et al. 2006)
– Peanut hulls (chemical activation using 41 wt.% and 85 wt.% H 3 PO 4 , KOH, 50%
ZnCl 2 , thermal activation by steam pyrolysis), surface area = 80.8–1177 m
2
/g,
methylene blue 31–38.5 mg/g (Girgis et al. 2002)
– Orange peel, direct blue 86 33.78 mg/g (El Nemr et al. 2008)
– Peach stones (impregnation using 85 wt% H 3 PO 4 followed by carbonization
(500 °C), soaking overnight at 80 °C, washed with hot water and dried in their
own atmosphere of evolving gases, impregnation using 50 wt% H 3 PO 4 and carbonization (500 °C) in the N 2 flow, further heating (800 °C) in the air flow),
methylene blue 198–412 mg/g (Attia et al. 2008)
– Almond shell, direct red 80 20.5 mg/g, 16.4 mg/g, and 16.96 mg/g for mixture,
internal, and external shells (Ardejani et al. 2008)
A. Wołowicz and M. Wawrzkiewicz
Activated Carbon Obtained from Wastes
To overcome deficiencies of commercial activated carbon, agricultural wastes or
industrial solid wastes are applied for active carbons production. Over the last several years, more attention was paid to such type materials which are considered in
wastewaters purification due to excess of generated wastes, low cost, easy availability, and non-toxicity in nature (Raval et al. 2017; Yagub et al. 2014). As precursors
used in activated carbons production for dyes removal leaves, shells, hulls, stones,
skin of fruit and vegetables, oil palm fibbers, wood, etc. could be applied (Foo and
Hameed 2010). The examples of various precursors used for activated carbons production and application for dye removal are presented below in the following order:
precursor of activated carbons production, dye which is removed, and maximum
sorption capacity:
– Waste apricot, surface area = 1060 m
2
/g, methylene blue 136.98 mg/g (50 °C),
methyl green 163.93 mg/g (50 °C), crystal violet 91.74 mg/g (50 °C) (Basar 2006)
– Palm fruit bunch, basic yellow 21 327 mg/g, basic red 180 mg/g, basic blue
92 mg/g (Nassar and Magdy 1997)
– Oil palm shell, methylene blue 243.90 mg/g (Tan et al. 2008)
– Plum kernel, acid blue 74 388.00 mg/g (Tseng and Wu 2009)
– Organic sugarcane bagasse, acid blue 80 391 mg/g (Valix et al. 2004)
– Sunflower seed hull, acid violet 17 107.52 mg/g (Thinakaran et al. 2008)
– Sludge, acid orange 7 and chrysophenine 83–270 mg/g at temperatures 10–60 °C
(Chiang et al. 2009)
– Sewage sludge (drying at 105 °C, chemical activation using 98% H 2 SO 4 (48 h),
dried at 80 °C, pyrolysis under flow of N 2 (heating rate 15 °C/min up to 625 °C),
washed using 10% HCl (10% by weight) and drying at 105 °C, then ground and
sieved (0.125 and 1.5 mm), surface area = 390 m
2
/g, methylene blue 194.3 mg/g,
safranine 250.2 mg/g (Rozada et al. 2003)
– Natural cellulose: jute, coconut (physical activation, carbonization at 950 °C
under N 2 flow, activation with CO 2 ; chemical activation, impregnation using
30 wt.% H 3 PO 4 (900 °C) for 24 h, washed and heated (20 °C/min) in the N 2 flow
at 900 °C for 2 h, purified using ultra-pure water, subsequently dried at 105 °C,
acid red 27 113.63–181.81 mg/g (Phan et al. 2006)
– Peanut hulls (chemical activation using 41 wt.% and 85 wt.% H 3 PO 4 , KOH, 50%
ZnCl 2 , thermal activation by steam pyrolysis), surface area = 80.8–1177 m
2
/g,
methylene blue 31–38.5 mg/g (Girgis et al. 2002)
– Orange peel, direct blue 86 33.78 mg/g (El Nemr et al. 2008)
– Peach stones (impregnation using 85 wt% H 3 PO 4 followed by carbonization
(500 °C), soaking overnight at 80 °C, washed with hot water and dried in their
own atmosphere of evolving gases, impregnation using 50 wt% H 3 PO 4 and carbonization (500 °C) in the N 2 flow, further heating (800 °C) in the air flow),
methylene blue 198–412 mg/g (Attia et al. 2008)
– Almond shell, direct red 80 20.5 mg/g, 16.4 mg/g, and 16.96 mg/g for mixture,
internal, and external shells (Ardejani et al. 2008)
A. Wołowicz and M. Wawrzkiewicz