During the design phase of the reservoirs,
potential precipitation may have been overestimated and infiltration of rainwater into the soil
and evaporation as well as evapotranspiration
may have been underestimated. If WH modelling
had been included in the design process, it might
have led to smaller sized reservoirs in relation to
their respective catchments, thus improving
functionality while reducing in-situ impact and
costs. At least two of Holmgren’s (2011) twelve
permaculture design principles would have given
valuable guidance during the design and planning process. Principle (9): “Use small and slow
solutions”—smaller systems are easier to maintain than big ones, making better use of local
resources and producing better outcomes; and
principle (1): “Observe and interact”—by taking
time to engage with nature, solutions that suit
one’s particular situation can be designed.
This would, e.g. translate to first identifying
one reservoir area where the respective catchment would be expected to be most effective.
A reduced reservoir size might suit the expected
scenarios better regarding precipitation, infiltration and evapotranspiration. Allowing enough
time to observe if the system actually works once
installed, including ongoing monitoring and
evaluation, would indicate if building more or
larger reservoirs is reasonable.
The current study is focused on the analysis of
reservoir functions. The permaculture design
approach is able to produce nature-based solutions
that can contribute to ecosystem services. Building on-farm WH reservoirs as for Gibraleón or
water landscapes as in the case of Tamera or
Vivencia Dehesa would benefit from long-term
studies to better understand the dynamics and
extent of their contribution in restoring groundwater levels, regenerating soil as well as biodiversity,
sequestering
carbon,
reversing
desertification processes, mitigating climate
change and eventually in establishing an economically viable land restoration process that may
translate to environmental stewardship schemes
the land owner receives compensation for.
Further research into the application of the
presented WH computer model may make
modelling more accessible to farmers and land
owners. This can improve planning processes,
where well informed decisions on investments
related to WH have to be taken. Moreover,
modelling-based scenario analyses can help
better understand the dynamics and extent of its
potential in establishing an effective and economically viable land restoration process for the
region, taking into account climate change
projections of increasing desertification in the
Mediterranean basin (Guiot and Cramer 2016).
This would represent another initiative towards
a nexus approach in the region (Hoff et al.
2019).
A collaboration with other experts, e.g. from
geology, hydrology or ecology within the setting
of a larger research project may increase the
positive impact of WH initiatives, while a study
that compares different available software tools
with the current bucket modelling would help to
establish a cost–benefit analysis. Some guidelines and standards related to earth dam building
do exist and taking them into account may help
to mitigate risks during and after construction
(e.g., Stephens 2010; DPIW 2008).
Acknowledgements M. Buley, M. Báez Lozano,
J. Schweikle and F. Lehmann for study site support; B.
Dieppois for additional climate data, U. Schmutz, N.
Giddings, D. Joshi and the external reviewers for critical
review, Coventry University and its Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience (CAWR) for financial
support to conduct the field research.
References
Al Jazeera (2011) Greening the desert, 28 Oct 2011.
https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/earthrise/
2011/10/2011102793927343187.html. Accessed 19
Apr 2017
Bensin BM (1928) Agroecological characteristics description and classification of the local corn varieties
chorotypes. Prague
Bensin BM (1930) Possibilities for international cooperation in agroecological investigations. Int Rev Agric
Mon Bull Agric Sci Pract 21:277–284
Biemans H, Haddeland I, Kabat P, Ludwig F, Hutjes RWA, Heinke J, Von Bloh W, Gerten D (2011)
Impact of reservoirs on river discharge and irrigation
water supply during the 20th century. Water Resour
Res
47(3):1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2009wr
008929
76
I. Fiebrig and M. Van De Wiel
potential precipitation may have been overestimated and infiltration of rainwater into the soil
and evaporation as well as evapotranspiration
may have been underestimated. If WH modelling
had been included in the design process, it might
have led to smaller sized reservoirs in relation to
their respective catchments, thus improving
functionality while reducing in-situ impact and
costs. At least two of Holmgren’s (2011) twelve
permaculture design principles would have given
valuable guidance during the design and planning process. Principle (9): “Use small and slow
solutions”—smaller systems are easier to maintain than big ones, making better use of local
resources and producing better outcomes; and
principle (1): “Observe and interact”—by taking
time to engage with nature, solutions that suit
one’s particular situation can be designed.
This would, e.g. translate to first identifying
one reservoir area where the respective catchment would be expected to be most effective.
A reduced reservoir size might suit the expected
scenarios better regarding precipitation, infiltration and evapotranspiration. Allowing enough
time to observe if the system actually works once
installed, including ongoing monitoring and
evaluation, would indicate if building more or
larger reservoirs is reasonable.
The current study is focused on the analysis of
reservoir functions. The permaculture design
approach is able to produce nature-based solutions
that can contribute to ecosystem services. Building on-farm WH reservoirs as for Gibraleón or
water landscapes as in the case of Tamera or
Vivencia Dehesa would benefit from long-term
studies to better understand the dynamics and
extent of their contribution in restoring groundwater levels, regenerating soil as well as biodiversity,
sequestering
carbon,
reversing
desertification processes, mitigating climate
change and eventually in establishing an economically viable land restoration process that may
translate to environmental stewardship schemes
the land owner receives compensation for.
Further research into the application of the
presented WH computer model may make
modelling more accessible to farmers and land
owners. This can improve planning processes,
where well informed decisions on investments
related to WH have to be taken. Moreover,
modelling-based scenario analyses can help
better understand the dynamics and extent of its
potential in establishing an effective and economically viable land restoration process for the
region, taking into account climate change
projections of increasing desertification in the
Mediterranean basin (Guiot and Cramer 2016).
This would represent another initiative towards
a nexus approach in the region (Hoff et al.
2019).
A collaboration with other experts, e.g. from
geology, hydrology or ecology within the setting
of a larger research project may increase the
positive impact of WH initiatives, while a study
that compares different available software tools
with the current bucket modelling would help to
establish a cost–benefit analysis. Some guidelines and standards related to earth dam building
do exist and taking them into account may help
to mitigate risks during and after construction
(e.g., Stephens 2010; DPIW 2008).
Acknowledgements M. Buley, M. Báez Lozano,
J. Schweikle and F. Lehmann for study site support; B.
Dieppois for additional climate data, U. Schmutz, N.
Giddings, D. Joshi and the external reviewers for critical
review, Coventry University and its Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience (CAWR) for financial
support to conduct the field research.
References
Al Jazeera (2011) Greening the desert, 28 Oct 2011.
https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/earthrise/
2011/10/2011102793927343187.html. Accessed 19
Apr 2017
Bensin BM (1928) Agroecological characteristics description and classification of the local corn varieties
chorotypes. Prague
Bensin BM (1930) Possibilities for international cooperation in agroecological investigations. Int Rev Agric
Mon Bull Agric Sci Pract 21:277–284
Biemans H, Haddeland I, Kabat P, Ludwig F, Hutjes RWA, Heinke J, Von Bloh W, Gerten D (2011)
Impact of reservoirs on river discharge and irrigation
water supply during the 20th century. Water Resour
Res
47(3):1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2009wr
008929
76
I. Fiebrig and M. Van De Wiel