wastewater continues to be used. The following
factors determine the acceptability of wastewater
as a sustainable source of irrigation:
• The ever-increasing demand for alternative
sources of water for irrigation
• Uncontrolled urban growth increases the
demand for potable water supply
• Increase in recognition of wastewater as a
valuable source of nutrients
• Treatment of wastewater and adequate precautions while irrigating
• Socio-cultural acceptance of the practice of
wastewater farming all over the world.
Wastewater is a reliable and inexpensive
source of water supply. At times, the yield of
crops might be increased with wastewater irrigation relative to freshwater irrigation, owing to
the presence of nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. However, the disadvantage is that some of these nutrients might
be present in excess or be deficient.
Fertilizers contaminate water bodies because
of agricultural runoff, resulting in eutrophication.
Eutrophication causes increased algal and weed
growth, which poses a challenge to the use of
wastewater for agriculture. This causes a serious
threat to potable drinking water, fisheries, and
recreational water bodies, causing plant die-off as
a result of oxygen depletion (Chislock et al.
2013).
As per the field experience of the farmers,
wastewater agriculture incurs fewer input costs,
such as water and fertilizer, and yields higher
income. However, the main operational issue is
with high weed infestation. Under the
freshwater-irrigated area, farmers grow more
cereals and flowers and face less of a weed
problem. However, this approach involves more
input costs and produces a lower income. When
it comes to the quality of the produce,
wastewater-irrigated produce is dark in colour
and looks fresh, but its shelf life is reduced. In
contrast, freshwater-irrigated produce is light in
colour and has a longer shelf life. Horticultural
products brought to Hubli–Dharwad for sale
were not traced according to where they came
from and production figures for vegetables irrigated by wastewater were not available as there
were no records of production levels within the
city.
Table 2 Investigation results of control and event sites through RCA
S. no. Probable root
causes
Investigation results
(comparative account of control and event site)
Remarks
01
Unsafe
environmental
conditions
Temperature, relative humidity, air quality, rainfall, dryness almost
same as Kamalapur, not much variability
Cannot be the
root cause
02
Chemical exposure Usually with personal protective equipment, but could be because of
excess pesticide/weedicide used without safety measures in place
Could be the
root cause
03
Contaminated food Almost the same food habits and the same conditions
Cannot be the
root cause
04
Contaminated
potable water
Potable water source is the same and quality is good for both of the
sites, none of the respondents uses groundwater/borewell water
Cannot be the
root cause
05
Exposure to
sewage/wastewater
No such exposure at the control site but direct exposure at the event
site
Could be the
root cause
06
Infrastructural
issues
All respondents live in their own house and their basic needs are
fulfilled, most of them own land
Cannot be the
root cause
07
Poor sanitation
Toilet available at every house and every member uses it
Cannot be the
root cause
08
Poor hygiene
practices
Interviewed and found satisfactory
Cannot be the
root cause
50
G. Ramakrishna and M. Hanisch
factors determine the acceptability of wastewater
as a sustainable source of irrigation:
• The ever-increasing demand for alternative
sources of water for irrigation
• Uncontrolled urban growth increases the
demand for potable water supply
• Increase in recognition of wastewater as a
valuable source of nutrients
• Treatment of wastewater and adequate precautions while irrigating
• Socio-cultural acceptance of the practice of
wastewater farming all over the world.
Wastewater is a reliable and inexpensive
source of water supply. At times, the yield of
crops might be increased with wastewater irrigation relative to freshwater irrigation, owing to
the presence of nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. However, the disadvantage is that some of these nutrients might
be present in excess or be deficient.
Fertilizers contaminate water bodies because
of agricultural runoff, resulting in eutrophication.
Eutrophication causes increased algal and weed
growth, which poses a challenge to the use of
wastewater for agriculture. This causes a serious
threat to potable drinking water, fisheries, and
recreational water bodies, causing plant die-off as
a result of oxygen depletion (Chislock et al.
2013).
As per the field experience of the farmers,
wastewater agriculture incurs fewer input costs,
such as water and fertilizer, and yields higher
income. However, the main operational issue is
with high weed infestation. Under the
freshwater-irrigated area, farmers grow more
cereals and flowers and face less of a weed
problem. However, this approach involves more
input costs and produces a lower income. When
it comes to the quality of the produce,
wastewater-irrigated produce is dark in colour
and looks fresh, but its shelf life is reduced. In
contrast, freshwater-irrigated produce is light in
colour and has a longer shelf life. Horticultural
products brought to Hubli–Dharwad for sale
were not traced according to where they came
from and production figures for vegetables irrigated by wastewater were not available as there
were no records of production levels within the
city.
Table 2 Investigation results of control and event sites through RCA
S. no. Probable root
causes
Investigation results
(comparative account of control and event site)
Remarks
01
Unsafe
environmental
conditions
Temperature, relative humidity, air quality, rainfall, dryness almost
same as Kamalapur, not much variability
Cannot be the
root cause
02
Chemical exposure Usually with personal protective equipment, but could be because of
excess pesticide/weedicide used without safety measures in place
Could be the
root cause
03
Contaminated food Almost the same food habits and the same conditions
Cannot be the
root cause
04
Contaminated
potable water
Potable water source is the same and quality is good for both of the
sites, none of the respondents uses groundwater/borewell water
Cannot be the
root cause
05
Exposure to
sewage/wastewater
No such exposure at the control site but direct exposure at the event
site
Could be the
root cause
06
Infrastructural
issues
All respondents live in their own house and their basic needs are
fulfilled, most of them own land
Cannot be the
root cause
07
Poor sanitation
Toilet available at every house and every member uses it
Cannot be the
root cause
08
Poor hygiene
practices
Interviewed and found satisfactory
Cannot be the
root cause
50
G. Ramakrishna and M. Hanisch