recent massive restoration measures implemented
on degraded landscapes in the country, the
problem remains strongly manifested in northern
Ethiopia. Soil erosion rates up to 130 t ha
−1
year
−1 from cropland (FAO 1986) and soil
nutrient depletion of 60 kg ha
−1 of combined
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) (Stoorvogel and
Smaling 1990) have been reported in Ethiopia.
For small watersheds in northern Ethiopia, soil
loss rates of 30 t ha
−1 year
−1 (Tesfahunegn 2011)
and 10 t ha
−1 year
−1 (Fenta et al. 2016) and
combined N and P nutrient export of 9.2 kg
ha
−1 year
−1 (Tesfahunegn and Vlek 2013) were
estimated. The severe erosion could be associated with forest cover, which decreased to the
level of less than 3% in the early 1990s, and
other characteristics of poor management
(Bishaw 2001). In other areas in Ethiopia, the
relatively stable and higher percentages of forest
coverage and soil and water conservation
(SWC) practices were reported to decrease the
severity of erosion (Solomon et al. 2018).
To reduce erosion related problems, the government of Ethiopia in collaboration with international donors has been implementing various
mechanical and biological SWC measures in the
country since the 1970s. The SWC implementation programme from the 1970s to 1990s was
top-down (government-led, incentive based
(food-for-work)) and has paid more attention to
the implementation of structural SWC measures
targeting to control soil erosion and improve
resources such as vegetation, water availability.
In the early 2000s, community-based integrated
watershed management was introduced to
achieve the broader integrated natural resources
management and to improve the livelihoods
(Bishaw 2001; Gebregziabher et al. 2016).
Watersheds have been recognized as appropriate
unit to integrate land resource management,
where management is not only limited to
improving (and jointly considering in the sense
of a nexus approach) land, water, biodiversity,
and food security (Karlberg et al. 2014; Johnson
and Karlberg 2017), but also concerned with
integration for self-reliance and holistic economic development of the community and
assures minimum disturbance to the environment
(Alemu and Kidane 2014; Karlberg et al. 2015).
The community-based integrated watershed
management approach in Ethiopia involves the
most affected people across all phases of the
development activities and demands different
disciplines (biophysical, social, and economic
sciences) and administrative units such as village, sub-district, and region (Lakew et al. 2005;
Kerse 2017).
Considering the contribution of agriculture to
the national economy (employment) and food
security, the government of Ethiopia has implemented the policy of ‘Agriculture DevelopmentLed Industrialization (ADLI)’ since 1993. The
primary objective of this policy is to support for
achieving rapid and sustainable economic growth
by improving the productivity of the agriculture
sector as a priority sector since the early 1990s
(Dube et al. 2019). To achieve the goals of this
policy on all lands in the country, a strategy on
sustainable watershed resources management
including soil, water and biodiversity conservation has been put in place. Watershed management is supposed to be practiced as a means to
increase rain-fed and irrigation agricultural production, conserve natural resources and reduce
poverty in Ethiopia, a country characterized by
low agricultural productivity, severe natural
resource degradation, and high levels of poverty
(Kerr 2002). Under the current conditions in
Ethiopia (low agricultural productivity, severe
natural resource degradation, and high levels of
poverty), strengthening the participatory
approaches could support the successful implementation of integrated watershed management,
in the context of achieving integrated water–soil–
waste management (nexus approach) at the local
level. This nexus approach is particularly
important in view of the current sustainable
development goals (SDGs) (Hülsmann and
Ardakanian 2018), which have targets to
improve degraded land resources (SDG 15),
eliminate poverty (SDG 1), and achieve zero
hunger (SDG 2) by 2030 (United Nations 2015).
Sustainable watershed management interventions
as
integrated
water–energy–food
(WEF) management nexus approach can inform
sector planning, policy, and technology decisions
166
G. B. Tesfahunegn and E. T. Ayuk
on degraded landscapes in the country, the
problem remains strongly manifested in northern
Ethiopia. Soil erosion rates up to 130 t ha
−1
year
−1 from cropland (FAO 1986) and soil
nutrient depletion of 60 kg ha
−1 of combined
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) (Stoorvogel and
Smaling 1990) have been reported in Ethiopia.
For small watersheds in northern Ethiopia, soil
loss rates of 30 t ha
−1 year
−1 (Tesfahunegn 2011)
and 10 t ha
−1 year
−1 (Fenta et al. 2016) and
combined N and P nutrient export of 9.2 kg
ha
−1 year
−1 (Tesfahunegn and Vlek 2013) were
estimated. The severe erosion could be associated with forest cover, which decreased to the
level of less than 3% in the early 1990s, and
other characteristics of poor management
(Bishaw 2001). In other areas in Ethiopia, the
relatively stable and higher percentages of forest
coverage and soil and water conservation
(SWC) practices were reported to decrease the
severity of erosion (Solomon et al. 2018).
To reduce erosion related problems, the government of Ethiopia in collaboration with international donors has been implementing various
mechanical and biological SWC measures in the
country since the 1970s. The SWC implementation programme from the 1970s to 1990s was
top-down (government-led, incentive based
(food-for-work)) and has paid more attention to
the implementation of structural SWC measures
targeting to control soil erosion and improve
resources such as vegetation, water availability.
In the early 2000s, community-based integrated
watershed management was introduced to
achieve the broader integrated natural resources
management and to improve the livelihoods
(Bishaw 2001; Gebregziabher et al. 2016).
Watersheds have been recognized as appropriate
unit to integrate land resource management,
where management is not only limited to
improving (and jointly considering in the sense
of a nexus approach) land, water, biodiversity,
and food security (Karlberg et al. 2014; Johnson
and Karlberg 2017), but also concerned with
integration for self-reliance and holistic economic development of the community and
assures minimum disturbance to the environment
(Alemu and Kidane 2014; Karlberg et al. 2015).
The community-based integrated watershed
management approach in Ethiopia involves the
most affected people across all phases of the
development activities and demands different
disciplines (biophysical, social, and economic
sciences) and administrative units such as village, sub-district, and region (Lakew et al. 2005;
Kerse 2017).
Considering the contribution of agriculture to
the national economy (employment) and food
security, the government of Ethiopia has implemented the policy of ‘Agriculture DevelopmentLed Industrialization (ADLI)’ since 1993. The
primary objective of this policy is to support for
achieving rapid and sustainable economic growth
by improving the productivity of the agriculture
sector as a priority sector since the early 1990s
(Dube et al. 2019). To achieve the goals of this
policy on all lands in the country, a strategy on
sustainable watershed resources management
including soil, water and biodiversity conservation has been put in place. Watershed management is supposed to be practiced as a means to
increase rain-fed and irrigation agricultural production, conserve natural resources and reduce
poverty in Ethiopia, a country characterized by
low agricultural productivity, severe natural
resource degradation, and high levels of poverty
(Kerr 2002). Under the current conditions in
Ethiopia (low agricultural productivity, severe
natural resource degradation, and high levels of
poverty), strengthening the participatory
approaches could support the successful implementation of integrated watershed management,
in the context of achieving integrated water–soil–
waste management (nexus approach) at the local
level. This nexus approach is particularly
important in view of the current sustainable
development goals (SDGs) (Hülsmann and
Ardakanian 2018), which have targets to
improve degraded land resources (SDG 15),
eliminate poverty (SDG 1), and achieve zero
hunger (SDG 2) by 2030 (United Nations 2015).
Sustainable watershed management interventions
as
integrated
water–energy–food
(WEF) management nexus approach can inform
sector planning, policy, and technology decisions
166
G. B. Tesfahunegn and E. T. Ayuk