present the outlook for the future and discuss
possible solutions.
2 The Iranian Context
2.1 Groundwater Depletion
and Energy Consumption
Trends
The Iranian water crisis has become a hot public
issue, especially since 2015 when high-level
officials started to warn that the country risks
experiencing a fate similar to Somalia over the
next 20 years (for instance Kalantari (2015,
announcement on 27.7.2015) and Nozaripur
(2015, announcement on 9.2.2015)). However,
the cause of Iran’s water crisis has deeper roots in
the country’s water management patterns, which
have especially transpired in recent years. At the
moment, several controversies exist regarding
available renewable water resources. Based on
the latest information from Iran’s Ministry of
Energy (MOE), which is responsible for the
country’s water resource management, the average available annual precipitation has reduced
from 225 to 205 mm, translating to a reduction in
available renewable water resources from 130
billion cubic meters (BCM) to 100 BCM
(Hajrasuliha 2015, IWRM
1 announcement on
27.9.2015). Based on the available estimations
by the Iran Water Resources Management
Company (IWRM), approximately 60 BCM of
groundwater was extracted in 2014, of which
more than 85% was used for irrigation (Water
Resources Base Study
2 ). The ministry of energy
(MOE) announced that 92% of water resources
were consumed by the agricultural sector (Chitchian 2014, Ministry announcement on
27.9.2014). The share of total water resources
consumed by agriculture does not correspond to
the share of agriculture in Iran’s national economy. The agriculture sector accounts for
approximately 10% of Iran’s GDP and 18% of
employment (Tehran Chamber of Commerce
2017). Groundwater consumption in Iran has
been increasing in recent decades. Figure 1
shows the increase in the number of wells (deep
and shallow) over the last 40 years. By 2013,
over 200,000 wells had been refitted to take
advantage of the electrical power network and
farmers were encouraged to use electric pumps.
Table 1 shows the amount of water extracted
and used by these wells and the share of the
agricultural sector based on official data from the
IWRM. From a total of 609 recognized aquifers
in the country, the number of aquifers restricted
for further groundwater extraction has increased
from 46 in 1973 to 297 in 2013 (see Table 1).
Based on the announcements in 2015, more than
half (300–350) of the aquifers were in critical
condition (Modaberi 2015, announcement on
28.12.2015). As we can see in Table 1, agriculture is the primary user of groundwater, with
90% of the extracted water consumed by the
sector. Both Fig. 1 and Table 1 show that the
number of wells with official permits has
increased dramatically in the last 40 years.
However, the deep wells running on subsidized
energy (diesel or electricity) are mostly responsible for substantial increases in water consumption within the agriculture sector (see
Table 1). The availability of illegal wells is
another negative factor that has contributed to the
depletion of groundwater resources. While there
is no reliable estimation of the number of illegal
wells, some official sources indicate that there are
as many as 200,000 (Meidani 2015b, Ministry
Deputy announcement on 6.8.2015), while others
put the figure to nearly 300,000 (Meidani 2015a,
Ministry Deputy announcement on 29.10.2015)
or even 350,000 (Akbari 2018).
2.2 The Historical Trend of Energy
Subsidies for Irrigation
The Iranian government has subsidized energy
consumption (electricity and diesel) for the agricultural sector for the last 40 years. Since 1999, a
special program for replacing diesel pumps with
electric pumps has been a major focus. The major
1
Iran Water Resources Management Co. (IWRM),
website: http://www.wrm.ir/.
2
Data source: http://wrbs.wrm.ir/ (last access 18.5.2016).
110
T. Jamali Jaghdani and V. Kvartiuk
possible solutions.
2 The Iranian Context
2.1 Groundwater Depletion
and Energy Consumption
Trends
The Iranian water crisis has become a hot public
issue, especially since 2015 when high-level
officials started to warn that the country risks
experiencing a fate similar to Somalia over the
next 20 years (for instance Kalantari (2015,
announcement on 27.7.2015) and Nozaripur
(2015, announcement on 9.2.2015)). However,
the cause of Iran’s water crisis has deeper roots in
the country’s water management patterns, which
have especially transpired in recent years. At the
moment, several controversies exist regarding
available renewable water resources. Based on
the latest information from Iran’s Ministry of
Energy (MOE), which is responsible for the
country’s water resource management, the average available annual precipitation has reduced
from 225 to 205 mm, translating to a reduction in
available renewable water resources from 130
billion cubic meters (BCM) to 100 BCM
(Hajrasuliha 2015, IWRM
1 announcement on
27.9.2015). Based on the available estimations
by the Iran Water Resources Management
Company (IWRM), approximately 60 BCM of
groundwater was extracted in 2014, of which
more than 85% was used for irrigation (Water
Resources Base Study
2 ). The ministry of energy
(MOE) announced that 92% of water resources
were consumed by the agricultural sector (Chitchian 2014, Ministry announcement on
27.9.2014). The share of total water resources
consumed by agriculture does not correspond to
the share of agriculture in Iran’s national economy. The agriculture sector accounts for
approximately 10% of Iran’s GDP and 18% of
employment (Tehran Chamber of Commerce
2017). Groundwater consumption in Iran has
been increasing in recent decades. Figure 1
shows the increase in the number of wells (deep
and shallow) over the last 40 years. By 2013,
over 200,000 wells had been refitted to take
advantage of the electrical power network and
farmers were encouraged to use electric pumps.
Table 1 shows the amount of water extracted
and used by these wells and the share of the
agricultural sector based on official data from the
IWRM. From a total of 609 recognized aquifers
in the country, the number of aquifers restricted
for further groundwater extraction has increased
from 46 in 1973 to 297 in 2013 (see Table 1).
Based on the announcements in 2015, more than
half (300–350) of the aquifers were in critical
condition (Modaberi 2015, announcement on
28.12.2015). As we can see in Table 1, agriculture is the primary user of groundwater, with
90% of the extracted water consumed by the
sector. Both Fig. 1 and Table 1 show that the
number of wells with official permits has
increased dramatically in the last 40 years.
However, the deep wells running on subsidized
energy (diesel or electricity) are mostly responsible for substantial increases in water consumption within the agriculture sector (see
Table 1). The availability of illegal wells is
another negative factor that has contributed to the
depletion of groundwater resources. While there
is no reliable estimation of the number of illegal
wells, some official sources indicate that there are
as many as 200,000 (Meidani 2015b, Ministry
Deputy announcement on 6.8.2015), while others
put the figure to nearly 300,000 (Meidani 2015a,
Ministry Deputy announcement on 29.10.2015)
or even 350,000 (Akbari 2018).
2.2 The Historical Trend of Energy
Subsidies for Irrigation
The Iranian government has subsidized energy
consumption (electricity and diesel) for the agricultural sector for the last 40 years. Since 1999, a
special program for replacing diesel pumps with
electric pumps has been a major focus. The major
1
Iran Water Resources Management Co. (IWRM),
website: http://www.wrm.ir/.
2
Data source: http://wrbs.wrm.ir/ (last access 18.5.2016).
110
T. Jamali Jaghdani and V. Kvartiuk