Thus, identifying the relationship between woman labor
force participation and the environmental degradation can
indicate how important is the role that gender equality can
play in climate change policies, especially in the most relevant sectors to climate change, that is, water resources
management, agriculture, energy, and transportation. There
is a limited reference in the climate change literature to this
vital issue. Thus, the current study first discusses the main
impacts of climate change in some sectors where women
participation is often crucial in spite of gender inequality
status in the MENA economies. Then, in the following
section, the study examines the existence of Modified
Environmental Kuznets Curve (MEKC) for gender in
MENA economies using fixed panel data model, and presents the empirical results, which indicate the relationship
between gender participation and the environmental degradation. Finally, the last section provides recommendations to
allow more attention to integrate gender perspective in the
climate adaptation policies in vital sectors in MENA
economies.
2 Significance of the Study
The lack of comprehensive research on gender interrelationship with climate change consequences and adaptation measures is the reason for conducting the current study.
Thus, one of the main objectives of the study is to highlight
this neglected gender aspect although it is a perquisite
dimension for achieving sustainable development, particularly on certain areas where women are the most vulnerable
segment in the community to the climate change. In addition, the paper stresses the significance of integrating
gender-sensitive policies to the climate change adaptation
measures as women can be efficient agents of change in the
MENA region. In this context, allowing more gender participation can be the channel through which more convenient
climate policies can be more efficiently implemented to
maintain sustainable development targets in the most vulnerable sectors to climate change, such as agriculture,
energy, and water management.
3 Gender Versus Climate Challenges
and Opportunities in MENA Region
In general, most MENA economies have high population
density around its sea shores or at best scenario less than
100 km from sea shores; for instance, more than 60% of the
population of Libya, Morocco, and Algeria are located in the
coastal areas. Thus, any unexpected sea-level rise can cause
major population shifts and adversely affect many relevant
economic activities such as tourism, which is a major source
of employment and income in many coastal economies such
as Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia (Arafa et al. 2007). Furthermore, land use and the efficiency of energy utilization are
issues of great concern for sustainable development in the
MENA region. The annual urbanization rate exceeds the rate
of population growth. Reliability of transportation systems,
water supply and waste-water networks, and energy generation stations will be at risk. Land use and urban planning
systems in the MENA region largely ignore basic adaptation
requirements to climate change, which place most of the
buildings and infrastructure in the region at a direct risk.
For instance, as climate change impacts become more
intensive, urban communities in the region face risks from
storms, floods, heat waves, and water shortages. These
variable climate risks constitute a great challenge if coupled
with gender inequality dynamics in the form of more climate
change hazards. In specific, at moments of stress, when land
and livelihood opportunities are under threat, the most
powerful party tends to socially exclude the less powerful
people in the communities, that is, women; this is expected
because of gender inequality. It is important to identify what
gender means before referring to gender inequality. Gender
refers to “socially constructed roles, responsibilities and
opportunities associated with men and women, as well as
hidden power structures that govern the relationships
between them” (United Nations Development Program
2010). Inequality between men and women is determined by
the learnt unequal treatment socially accorded to women.
The MENA region has the highest rate of gender inequality
worldwide, which equals to 0.572 (Sustainable Energy for
All 2017). In 2012, Egypt has the highest gender inequality
rate of the entire North African economies region with a
score of (0.575). By 2015, Syria has the highest score with a
rate of (0.554), while Libya has the least rate of gender
inequality in the region with almost 0.16, whereas the total
Arab world has reported a rate of 0.535 (The World Bank
Open Data Homepage 2018).
The following subsections present an example for climate
challenges for women in MENA economies in some priority
sectors, where women are high contributors, yet their efforts
are undermined due to several factors that will be explained
next.
3.1 Water Management
More than three-quarters of the MENA inhabitants are
mainly dependent on rain in their agriculture crops, which
are expected to decrease in some economies, with around
50% by 2020 (Arafa et al. 2007). The UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Report identifies water as a key priority area for consideration. An
increase in water scarcity leads to insufficient domestic water
240
H. H. M. Sileem
force participation and the environmental degradation can
indicate how important is the role that gender equality can
play in climate change policies, especially in the most relevant sectors to climate change, that is, water resources
management, agriculture, energy, and transportation. There
is a limited reference in the climate change literature to this
vital issue. Thus, the current study first discusses the main
impacts of climate change in some sectors where women
participation is often crucial in spite of gender inequality
status in the MENA economies. Then, in the following
section, the study examines the existence of Modified
Environmental Kuznets Curve (MEKC) for gender in
MENA economies using fixed panel data model, and presents the empirical results, which indicate the relationship
between gender participation and the environmental degradation. Finally, the last section provides recommendations to
allow more attention to integrate gender perspective in the
climate adaptation policies in vital sectors in MENA
economies.
2 Significance of the Study
The lack of comprehensive research on gender interrelationship with climate change consequences and adaptation measures is the reason for conducting the current study.
Thus, one of the main objectives of the study is to highlight
this neglected gender aspect although it is a perquisite
dimension for achieving sustainable development, particularly on certain areas where women are the most vulnerable
segment in the community to the climate change. In addition, the paper stresses the significance of integrating
gender-sensitive policies to the climate change adaptation
measures as women can be efficient agents of change in the
MENA region. In this context, allowing more gender participation can be the channel through which more convenient
climate policies can be more efficiently implemented to
maintain sustainable development targets in the most vulnerable sectors to climate change, such as agriculture,
energy, and water management.
3 Gender Versus Climate Challenges
and Opportunities in MENA Region
In general, most MENA economies have high population
density around its sea shores or at best scenario less than
100 km from sea shores; for instance, more than 60% of the
population of Libya, Morocco, and Algeria are located in the
coastal areas. Thus, any unexpected sea-level rise can cause
major population shifts and adversely affect many relevant
economic activities such as tourism, which is a major source
of employment and income in many coastal economies such
as Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia (Arafa et al. 2007). Furthermore, land use and the efficiency of energy utilization are
issues of great concern for sustainable development in the
MENA region. The annual urbanization rate exceeds the rate
of population growth. Reliability of transportation systems,
water supply and waste-water networks, and energy generation stations will be at risk. Land use and urban planning
systems in the MENA region largely ignore basic adaptation
requirements to climate change, which place most of the
buildings and infrastructure in the region at a direct risk.
For instance, as climate change impacts become more
intensive, urban communities in the region face risks from
storms, floods, heat waves, and water shortages. These
variable climate risks constitute a great challenge if coupled
with gender inequality dynamics in the form of more climate
change hazards. In specific, at moments of stress, when land
and livelihood opportunities are under threat, the most
powerful party tends to socially exclude the less powerful
people in the communities, that is, women; this is expected
because of gender inequality. It is important to identify what
gender means before referring to gender inequality. Gender
refers to “socially constructed roles, responsibilities and
opportunities associated with men and women, as well as
hidden power structures that govern the relationships
between them” (United Nations Development Program
2010). Inequality between men and women is determined by
the learnt unequal treatment socially accorded to women.
The MENA region has the highest rate of gender inequality
worldwide, which equals to 0.572 (Sustainable Energy for
All 2017). In 2012, Egypt has the highest gender inequality
rate of the entire North African economies region with a
score of (0.575). By 2015, Syria has the highest score with a
rate of (0.554), while Libya has the least rate of gender
inequality in the region with almost 0.16, whereas the total
Arab world has reported a rate of 0.535 (The World Bank
Open Data Homepage 2018).
The following subsections present an example for climate
challenges for women in MENA economies in some priority
sectors, where women are high contributors, yet their efforts
are undermined due to several factors that will be explained
next.
3.1 Water Management
More than three-quarters of the MENA inhabitants are
mainly dependent on rain in their agriculture crops, which
are expected to decrease in some economies, with around
50% by 2020 (Arafa et al. 2007). The UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Report identifies water as a key priority area for consideration. An
increase in water scarcity leads to insufficient domestic water
240
H. H. M. Sileem