510
The use of broad mortality indices such as LC50 is appealing in the sense that
they provide a discrete quantification of the effects of exposure that can be compared across species, life stages, ecosystems, and stressors. They are also easily
used to calculate economic effects of contaminant releases, a necessity given the
NRDA legal framework that often accompanies such a release. However, a focus on
mortality indices alone can obscure the fact that real harm, at both individual and
population levels, can be a result of exposure, but not manifest as overt mortality
within the available or selected observation window. Harm to organisms or ecosystems that does not result in mortality is still, nonetheless, harm. Using cellular,
molecular, or sublethal endpoints as discussed in this chapter can provide useful
information about the potential sublethal effects of a given exposure on selected
species and ecosystems than can be provided with mortality alone.
Acknowledgments This research was made possible by a grant from The Gulf of Mexico
Research Initiative through the C-IMAGE and RECOVER consortia.
References
Ali AO, Hohn C, Allen PJ, Ford L, Dail MB, Pruett S, Petrie-Hanson L (2014) The effects of oil
exposure on peripheral blood leukocytes and splenic melano-macrophage centers of Gulf of
Mexico fishes. Mar Pollut Bull 79(1–2):87–93
Arias CR, Koenders K, Larsen AM (2013) Predominant bacteria associated with red snapper from
the northern Gulf of Mexico. J Aquat Anim Health 25:281–289
Bayha KM, Ortell N, Ryan CN, Griffitt KJ, Krasnec M, Sena J, Ramaraj T, Takeshita R, Mayer
GD, Schilkey F, Griffitt RJ (2017) Crude oil impairs immune function and increases susceptibility to pathogenic bacteria in southern flounder. PLoS One 12(5):1–21
Bianchini A, Grosell M, Gregory SM, Wood CM (2002) Acute silver toxicity in aquatic animals is
a function of sodium uptake rate. Environ Sci Technol 36:1763–1766
Birnie-Gauvin K, Costantini D, Cooke SJ, Willmore WG (2017) A comparative and evolutionary
approach to oxidative stress in fish: A review. Fish and Fisheries 18:928–942
Bosker T, van Balen L, Walsh B, Sepulveda MS, DeGuise S, Perkins C, Griffitt RJ (2017) The
combined effect of macondo oil and corexit on sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon Variegatus)
during early development. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A Current Issues 80(9):477–484
Brette F, Machado B, Cros C, Incardona JP, Scholz NL, Block BA (2014) Crude oil impairs cardiac
excitation-contraction coupling in fish. Science 343:772–776
Brewton RA, Fulford R, Griffitt RJ (2013) Gene expression and growth as indicators of effects
of the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill on spotted seatrout (Cynoscion Nebulosus). J Toxicol
Environ Health Part A 76(21):1198–1209
Brown-Peterson NJ, Krasnec M, Takeshita R, Ryan CN, Griffitt KJ, Lay C, Mayer GD, Bayha
KM, Hawkins WE, Lipton I, Morris J, Griffitt RJ (2015) A multiple endpoint analysis of the
effects of chronic exposure to sediment contaminated with Deepwater Horizon oil on juvenile
southern flounder and their associated microbiomes. Aquat Toxicol 165:197–209
Cox GK, Crossley DA, Stieglitz JD, Heuer RM, Benetti DD, Grosell M (2017) Oil exposure impairs
in situ cardiac function in response to beta-adrenergic stimulation in cobia (Rachycentron canadum). Environ Sci Technol 51:14390–14396
Dubansky B, Whitehead A, Rice CD, Galvez F (2013) Multi-tissue molecular, genomic, and
developmental effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on resident Gulf killifish (Fundulus
Grandis). Environ Sci Technol 47(10):5074–5082
M. Grosell et al.
The use of broad mortality indices such as LC50 is appealing in the sense that
they provide a discrete quantification of the effects of exposure that can be compared across species, life stages, ecosystems, and stressors. They are also easily
used to calculate economic effects of contaminant releases, a necessity given the
NRDA legal framework that often accompanies such a release. However, a focus on
mortality indices alone can obscure the fact that real harm, at both individual and
population levels, can be a result of exposure, but not manifest as overt mortality
within the available or selected observation window. Harm to organisms or ecosystems that does not result in mortality is still, nonetheless, harm. Using cellular,
molecular, or sublethal endpoints as discussed in this chapter can provide useful
information about the potential sublethal effects of a given exposure on selected
species and ecosystems than can be provided with mortality alone.
Acknowledgments This research was made possible by a grant from The Gulf of Mexico
Research Initiative through the C-IMAGE and RECOVER consortia.
References
Ali AO, Hohn C, Allen PJ, Ford L, Dail MB, Pruett S, Petrie-Hanson L (2014) The effects of oil
exposure on peripheral blood leukocytes and splenic melano-macrophage centers of Gulf of
Mexico fishes. Mar Pollut Bull 79(1–2):87–93
Arias CR, Koenders K, Larsen AM (2013) Predominant bacteria associated with red snapper from
the northern Gulf of Mexico. J Aquat Anim Health 25:281–289
Bayha KM, Ortell N, Ryan CN, Griffitt KJ, Krasnec M, Sena J, Ramaraj T, Takeshita R, Mayer
GD, Schilkey F, Griffitt RJ (2017) Crude oil impairs immune function and increases susceptibility to pathogenic bacteria in southern flounder. PLoS One 12(5):1–21
Bianchini A, Grosell M, Gregory SM, Wood CM (2002) Acute silver toxicity in aquatic animals is
a function of sodium uptake rate. Environ Sci Technol 36:1763–1766
Birnie-Gauvin K, Costantini D, Cooke SJ, Willmore WG (2017) A comparative and evolutionary
approach to oxidative stress in fish: A review. Fish and Fisheries 18:928–942
Bosker T, van Balen L, Walsh B, Sepulveda MS, DeGuise S, Perkins C, Griffitt RJ (2017) The
combined effect of macondo oil and corexit on sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon Variegatus)
during early development. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A Current Issues 80(9):477–484
Brette F, Machado B, Cros C, Incardona JP, Scholz NL, Block BA (2014) Crude oil impairs cardiac
excitation-contraction coupling in fish. Science 343:772–776
Brewton RA, Fulford R, Griffitt RJ (2013) Gene expression and growth as indicators of effects
of the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill on spotted seatrout (Cynoscion Nebulosus). J Toxicol
Environ Health Part A 76(21):1198–1209
Brown-Peterson NJ, Krasnec M, Takeshita R, Ryan CN, Griffitt KJ, Lay C, Mayer GD, Bayha
KM, Hawkins WE, Lipton I, Morris J, Griffitt RJ (2015) A multiple endpoint analysis of the
effects of chronic exposure to sediment contaminated with Deepwater Horizon oil on juvenile
southern flounder and their associated microbiomes. Aquat Toxicol 165:197–209
Cox GK, Crossley DA, Stieglitz JD, Heuer RM, Benetti DD, Grosell M (2017) Oil exposure impairs
in situ cardiac function in response to beta-adrenergic stimulation in cobia (Rachycentron canadum). Environ Sci Technol 51:14390–14396
Dubansky B, Whitehead A, Rice CD, Galvez F (2013) Multi-tissue molecular, genomic, and
developmental effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on resident Gulf killifish (Fundulus
Grandis). Environ Sci Technol 47(10):5074–5082
M. Grosell et al.