or online SPE was performed. TurboFlow™ is recommended for matrices rich in
macromolecules like proteins. Using described method, LOQs for cis-/trans-DCCA,
3PBA, and 4F3PBA were 10, 5, and 1 ng/mL, respectively (Tables 2 and 3).
4 Non-separational Techniques
4.1 Immunoassays
Non-chromatographic methods could be a good alternative to expensive and timeconsuming chromatographic methods. A small sample volume, high throughput, and
sensitivity as well as simple detection systems are the advantages of immunoassays.
A number of immunoassay methods have been developed for the determination of
3PBA, cis-/trans-DCCA-glycine conjugate, and 3PBA-glycine conjugate in various
formats. Most methods are indirect competitive ELISA [38–45]; others are luminescent paramagnetic particle-based immunoassay [46], direct competitive fluorescence
enzyme immunoassay [47], noncompetitive magnetic bead-based PHAIA (polyclonal antibody-based noncompetitive immunoassay) [48], noncompetitive PHAIA
real-time PCR [49], and quenching fluoroimmunoassay [50].
Depending on the method, 0.001–10 mL of the urine sample is required for one
assay. These methods are characterized by high sensitivity, since the limit of
quantification in the buffer is in the range of 0.01–0.25 ng/mL and 0.1–2.5 ng/mL
in the urine. Practically, the method with the limit quantification of 0.1 ng/mL can be
used to study exposure in the general population. Currently, however, no immunoassay for pyrethroid metabolites is commercially available. The main weakness of
immunoassays is cross-reactivity with other compounds with similar structure or
properties.
4.2 Other Methods
Recently, Pandey et al. [51] published a method for optical sensing 3PBA in urine
samples by surface imprinting polymer capped on manganese-doped zinc sulfide
quantum dots (QD). Developed sensor is highly stable and does not require any
sample pretreatment. However, quantitative analysis is not affordable with this
system (Table 4).
5 Quality Control
5.1 Intra- and Interlaboratory Quality Control
One of the key challenges of the HBM research methodology is the highest quality
of quantitative results. It is worth noting that the concentrations of synthetic
58
B. Wielgomas et al.
macromolecules like proteins. Using described method, LOQs for cis-/trans-DCCA,
3PBA, and 4F3PBA were 10, 5, and 1 ng/mL, respectively (Tables 2 and 3).
4 Non-separational Techniques
4.1 Immunoassays
Non-chromatographic methods could be a good alternative to expensive and timeconsuming chromatographic methods. A small sample volume, high throughput, and
sensitivity as well as simple detection systems are the advantages of immunoassays.
A number of immunoassay methods have been developed for the determination of
3PBA, cis-/trans-DCCA-glycine conjugate, and 3PBA-glycine conjugate in various
formats. Most methods are indirect competitive ELISA [38–45]; others are luminescent paramagnetic particle-based immunoassay [46], direct competitive fluorescence
enzyme immunoassay [47], noncompetitive magnetic bead-based PHAIA (polyclonal antibody-based noncompetitive immunoassay) [48], noncompetitive PHAIA
real-time PCR [49], and quenching fluoroimmunoassay [50].
Depending on the method, 0.001–10 mL of the urine sample is required for one
assay. These methods are characterized by high sensitivity, since the limit of
quantification in the buffer is in the range of 0.01–0.25 ng/mL and 0.1–2.5 ng/mL
in the urine. Practically, the method with the limit quantification of 0.1 ng/mL can be
used to study exposure in the general population. Currently, however, no immunoassay for pyrethroid metabolites is commercially available. The main weakness of
immunoassays is cross-reactivity with other compounds with similar structure or
properties.
4.2 Other Methods
Recently, Pandey et al. [51] published a method for optical sensing 3PBA in urine
samples by surface imprinting polymer capped on manganese-doped zinc sulfide
quantum dots (QD). Developed sensor is highly stable and does not require any
sample pretreatment. However, quantitative analysis is not affordable with this
system (Table 4).
5 Quality Control
5.1 Intra- and Interlaboratory Quality Control
One of the key challenges of the HBM research methodology is the highest quality
of quantitative results. It is worth noting that the concentrations of synthetic
58
B. Wielgomas et al.