organism, mode of action, permissible/expected use site (e.g., agricultural setting,
home, institutional sites, nonfood or food plant, indoors, outdoors, on pets), use
classification (e.g., general use or pest control operators only), formation type
(liquids, concentrates, coils, mats), application method (e.g., power, mechanical,
commercial spray, aerosol can, fogger), application rate (includes percent active
agent), and application timing (e.g., reapplication timing) [13].
3 Pyrethroids Associated with Agricultural Activities
Pyrethroids are currently among the most commonly used pesticides in agricultural
settings to control insects on crops; in forestry, horticulture, and gardens; and for
flying insects on livestock and pets [14]. They can be sprayed aerially, from trucks,
tractors, or handheld devices onto crops, all of which potentially increase outdoor air
concentrations and expose applicators, farm workers in the fields, and residents in
nearby homes. Most recent studies of exposure to workers and to individuals
exposed to drift from agricultural applications have evaluated urinary levels of
pyrethroid metabolites rather than measuring air concentrations to assess inhalation
exposures [14]. Thus, few recent studies have reported worker’s exposure to air
concentrations. The current US occupational exposure limit for pyrethroids for an
8-h workday, 40-h workweek is 5 mg per cubic meter (mg/m
3 ) [14]. The most
extensive study of exposure to pesticides in the USA is the Agricultural Health
Study, initiated in 1993 when the participants used chlorinated and organophosphate
insecticides. More recently, pyrethroid exposures are being examined in a subset of
the participants in the Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect in Agriculture (BEEA)
study [6] with cyfluthrin and permethrin being reported to be used in 2010 by 13%
and 12%, respectively, of the 1,223 participants. While the applicator is expected to
encounter the highest air concentrations, workers are supposed to be supplied with
personal protective equipment (PPE), which if properly used reduces the inhaled
pesticide levels and skin contact [15, 16]. The use of PPE is part of the EPA’s
Agricultural Worker Protection Standard (WPS) [17]. The WPS provides guidance
on procedures to reduce worker exposure to pesticides and therefore the risk of
pesticide poisoning and injury among over the two million agricultural workers,
pesticide handlers, and their families in the United States. This is done through
informing (safety training, written safety information, labeling, notification about
treated areas to avoid), protecting (avoiding treated areas, suspending application
when others are near, reentry guidelines, monitoring, proper personal protective
equipment – including respirators), and mitigation of adverse events (availability of
decontamination supplies – routinely and for emergencies, emergency transportation
to medical facilities) [17].
230
C. P. Weisel
home, institutional sites, nonfood or food plant, indoors, outdoors, on pets), use
classification (e.g., general use or pest control operators only), formation type
(liquids, concentrates, coils, mats), application method (e.g., power, mechanical,
commercial spray, aerosol can, fogger), application rate (includes percent active
agent), and application timing (e.g., reapplication timing) [13].
3 Pyrethroids Associated with Agricultural Activities
Pyrethroids are currently among the most commonly used pesticides in agricultural
settings to control insects on crops; in forestry, horticulture, and gardens; and for
flying insects on livestock and pets [14]. They can be sprayed aerially, from trucks,
tractors, or handheld devices onto crops, all of which potentially increase outdoor air
concentrations and expose applicators, farm workers in the fields, and residents in
nearby homes. Most recent studies of exposure to workers and to individuals
exposed to drift from agricultural applications have evaluated urinary levels of
pyrethroid metabolites rather than measuring air concentrations to assess inhalation
exposures [14]. Thus, few recent studies have reported worker’s exposure to air
concentrations. The current US occupational exposure limit for pyrethroids for an
8-h workday, 40-h workweek is 5 mg per cubic meter (mg/m
3 ) [14]. The most
extensive study of exposure to pesticides in the USA is the Agricultural Health
Study, initiated in 1993 when the participants used chlorinated and organophosphate
insecticides. More recently, pyrethroid exposures are being examined in a subset of
the participants in the Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect in Agriculture (BEEA)
study [6] with cyfluthrin and permethrin being reported to be used in 2010 by 13%
and 12%, respectively, of the 1,223 participants. While the applicator is expected to
encounter the highest air concentrations, workers are supposed to be supplied with
personal protective equipment (PPE), which if properly used reduces the inhaled
pesticide levels and skin contact [15, 16]. The use of PPE is part of the EPA’s
Agricultural Worker Protection Standard (WPS) [17]. The WPS provides guidance
on procedures to reduce worker exposure to pesticides and therefore the risk of
pesticide poisoning and injury among over the two million agricultural workers,
pesticide handlers, and their families in the United States. This is done through
informing (safety training, written safety information, labeling, notification about
treated areas to avoid), protecting (avoiding treated areas, suspending application
when others are near, reentry guidelines, monitoring, proper personal protective
equipment – including respirators), and mitigation of adverse events (availability of
decontamination supplies – routinely and for emergencies, emergency transportation
to medical facilities) [17].
230
C. P. Weisel