Pyrethroids were found in all the samples of wild Iberian river fish at concentrations ranging from 12 to 4,940 ng/g lw [43]. Bifenthrin, cyhalothrin, cypermethrin,
fenvalerate, tetramethrin and permethrin were present in all the samples, while
fluvalinate, phenothrin and resmethrin were not detected. Because of the similitudes
among samples from closer river basins, pyrethroid profiles possibly reflected
the local use of pesticides. On the other hand, interspecies profile variation was
reported within a sampling point. Comparted to the levels of flame retardants,
personal care products, hormones and pharmaceuticals in the same Iberian fish
samples, pyrethroids were found as frequently as PBDEs and dechloranes [45] and
more than twice as frequently as the rest [46, 47]. Pyrethroid showed the highest
concentrations, followed by parabens and OPFRs. Pyrethroids have also been
reported to accumulate in farmed salmon [48].
Pyrethroids were detected in most unhatched eggs from wild birds from Doñana
(Spain), with mean total values from 1.93 to 162 ng/g lw depending on the species
[53]. The many factors for this variation could include the feeding habits, body
condition, age, habitat and migratory behaviour. Fenpropathrin, fluvalinate and
resmethrin were not detected. Cypermethrin, λ-cyhalothrin and bifenthrin were
found in over 75% of the samples. Eggs of species with anthropogenic feeding
habits were more contaminated, followed by eggs of birds of the aquatic feeding
category. This suggests that dietary intake might play an important role in the
bioaccumulation of pyrethroids. It is also consistent with the higher contamination
in urban areas and the aquatic ecosystems being easily contaminated via run-off.
A limited number of studies have considered the accumulation of pyrethroids
in human milk. Permethrin, λ-cyhalothrin, esfenvalerate, cypermethrin, tetramethrin
and bifenthrin were found in most milk samples from a rural area in Mozambique
[59]. Total pyrethroid levels were between 87 and 1,200 ng/g lw. The main
contributor to the pyrethroid profiles was λ-cyhalothrin, followed by permethrin
and then cypermethrin, esfenvalerate and tetramethrin. The difference with the levels
previously found in human breast milk from Switzerland (median 15–31 ng/g lw)
can be related to a more limited use for agricultural and domestic applications
in Switzerland [60]. Conversely, levels of pyrethroids similar to the samples from
Mozambique had been found in South Africa [9, 61]. The authors suggested a
domestic source of contamination for the Swiss samples and an agricultural
source for the South African ones.
A bigger and more recent study including human milk samples from urban
and rural areas of Colombia, Spain and Brazil reported concentrations from 1.45
to 24.2 ng/g lw [10]. These results were similar to the ones reported for the
Swiss samples. Individual concentrations decreased from cypermethrin (up to
16.4 ng/g lw) through tetramethrin, λ-cyhalothrin, bifenthrin, permethrin, fenvalerate
to deltamethrin (up to 1.86 ng/g lw). As reported in several studies with animal
samples, the pyrethroid profiles suggested usage of different pyrethroids in
different areas, supported by knowledge of local usage (cypermethrin in Colombia)
[10] or agreement with other studies (permethrin in striped dolphins from southern
Spain) [8]. The contamination in milk decreased exponentially with parity,
supporting the hypothesis of maternal transfer of pyrethroids.
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Ò. Aznar-Alemany and E. Eljarrat
fenvalerate, tetramethrin and permethrin were present in all the samples, while
fluvalinate, phenothrin and resmethrin were not detected. Because of the similitudes
among samples from closer river basins, pyrethroid profiles possibly reflected
the local use of pesticides. On the other hand, interspecies profile variation was
reported within a sampling point. Comparted to the levels of flame retardants,
personal care products, hormones and pharmaceuticals in the same Iberian fish
samples, pyrethroids were found as frequently as PBDEs and dechloranes [45] and
more than twice as frequently as the rest [46, 47]. Pyrethroid showed the highest
concentrations, followed by parabens and OPFRs. Pyrethroids have also been
reported to accumulate in farmed salmon [48].
Pyrethroids were detected in most unhatched eggs from wild birds from Doñana
(Spain), with mean total values from 1.93 to 162 ng/g lw depending on the species
[53]. The many factors for this variation could include the feeding habits, body
condition, age, habitat and migratory behaviour. Fenpropathrin, fluvalinate and
resmethrin were not detected. Cypermethrin, λ-cyhalothrin and bifenthrin were
found in over 75% of the samples. Eggs of species with anthropogenic feeding
habits were more contaminated, followed by eggs of birds of the aquatic feeding
category. This suggests that dietary intake might play an important role in the
bioaccumulation of pyrethroids. It is also consistent with the higher contamination
in urban areas and the aquatic ecosystems being easily contaminated via run-off.
A limited number of studies have considered the accumulation of pyrethroids
in human milk. Permethrin, λ-cyhalothrin, esfenvalerate, cypermethrin, tetramethrin
and bifenthrin were found in most milk samples from a rural area in Mozambique
[59]. Total pyrethroid levels were between 87 and 1,200 ng/g lw. The main
contributor to the pyrethroid profiles was λ-cyhalothrin, followed by permethrin
and then cypermethrin, esfenvalerate and tetramethrin. The difference with the levels
previously found in human breast milk from Switzerland (median 15–31 ng/g lw)
can be related to a more limited use for agricultural and domestic applications
in Switzerland [60]. Conversely, levels of pyrethroids similar to the samples from
Mozambique had been found in South Africa [9, 61]. The authors suggested a
domestic source of contamination for the Swiss samples and an agricultural
source for the South African ones.
A bigger and more recent study including human milk samples from urban
and rural areas of Colombia, Spain and Brazil reported concentrations from 1.45
to 24.2 ng/g lw [10]. These results were similar to the ones reported for the
Swiss samples. Individual concentrations decreased from cypermethrin (up to
16.4 ng/g lw) through tetramethrin, λ-cyhalothrin, bifenthrin, permethrin, fenvalerate
to deltamethrin (up to 1.86 ng/g lw). As reported in several studies with animal
samples, the pyrethroid profiles suggested usage of different pyrethroids in
different areas, supported by knowledge of local usage (cypermethrin in Colombia)
[10] or agreement with other studies (permethrin in striped dolphins from southern
Spain) [8]. The contamination in milk decreased exponentially with parity,
supporting the hypothesis of maternal transfer of pyrethroids.
220
Ò. Aznar-Alemany and E. Eljarrat