(LOEC) and the no observed effect concentration (NOEC) for daphnia were 0.02
and 0.01 μg L
À1 , respectively. The chronic value was 0.014 μg L
À1 . Half-maximal
inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) for hamster ovarian cells and human carcinoma
cells were 3.2 Â 10
À5 and 4.0 Â 10
À5 mol L
À1 , respectively. These data proved
the chronic toxicity of cis-bifenthrin in both invertebrates and mammals.
Male Wistar rats were administered for a year a mixture of pyrethroids equivalent
to a 5th or a 25th of what is in cereals and vegetables consumed by an average Indian
adult [54]. Altered oxidant and antioxidant status; severe anatomical damage in the
caput, cauda, kidney, liver, lung, prostate and testis; and increased serum glutamatepyruvate transaminase, serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and alkaline
phosphatase activity were clear for all the groups. Decreased levels of 3β- and
17β-hydroxy steroid dehydrogenase activity, litter size and impaired acrosome
reaction were detected in all the groups. Exposure to very low levels of pyrethroids
for longer periods may cause damage to important tissues and male reproductive
physiology [54]. Cypermethrin has been reported to cause adverse effects on the
immune system, fertility, the liver metabolism and cardiovascular and enzyme
activity in vertebrates, and a recent study suggests that it reduces the ovarian reserve
in mice via apoptosis in granulosa cells by mitochondrial-related pathways [55].
An important toxicological parameter for pyrethroids is their enantiomeric composition as different isomers can present different toxicities [56–58].
6 Legislation
No pesticide can be used in the European Union unless it has been proved to be
effective against pests and to be safe for the human health and the environment.
The European Union regulates the sustainable use of pesticides in order to
regulate their risks and impacts on human health and the environment [59]. Directive
2009/128/EC includes key points about national action plans, education for professional consumers and pesticide distributors, public information and awareness,
aerosol regulation, minimisation of use or ban of pesticides, revision of equipment
and integral management of pests with limitation of chemical products.
Pesticides leave residues in the treated products. The maximum residue level
(MRL) is the highest concentration of a pesticide allowed by the regulation. The
European Commission establishes MRLs at concentrations that are safe for the
consumers and as low as possible. The MRLs are available at the European Union
Pesticides database [60] (Tables 3 and 4).
MRLs have been set for about 1,100 compounds in over 300 fresh products and
for the same products after processing in order to take into account dilution or
concentration effects. When MRLs for a pesticide are not stated, the accepted default
value is 0.01 μg g
À1 , which usually corresponds to the limit of detection (LOD)
[59]. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) assesses the safety for every
consumer group – adults, kids, vegetarians, etc. – based on the pesticides’ toxicity
Introduction to Pyrethroid Insecticides: Chemical Structures, Properties, Mode. . .
11
and 0.01 μg L
À1 , respectively. The chronic value was 0.014 μg L
À1 . Half-maximal
inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) for hamster ovarian cells and human carcinoma
cells were 3.2 Â 10
À5 and 4.0 Â 10
À5 mol L
À1 , respectively. These data proved
the chronic toxicity of cis-bifenthrin in both invertebrates and mammals.
Male Wistar rats were administered for a year a mixture of pyrethroids equivalent
to a 5th or a 25th of what is in cereals and vegetables consumed by an average Indian
adult [54]. Altered oxidant and antioxidant status; severe anatomical damage in the
caput, cauda, kidney, liver, lung, prostate and testis; and increased serum glutamatepyruvate transaminase, serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase and alkaline
phosphatase activity were clear for all the groups. Decreased levels of 3β- and
17β-hydroxy steroid dehydrogenase activity, litter size and impaired acrosome
reaction were detected in all the groups. Exposure to very low levels of pyrethroids
for longer periods may cause damage to important tissues and male reproductive
physiology [54]. Cypermethrin has been reported to cause adverse effects on the
immune system, fertility, the liver metabolism and cardiovascular and enzyme
activity in vertebrates, and a recent study suggests that it reduces the ovarian reserve
in mice via apoptosis in granulosa cells by mitochondrial-related pathways [55].
An important toxicological parameter for pyrethroids is their enantiomeric composition as different isomers can present different toxicities [56–58].
6 Legislation
No pesticide can be used in the European Union unless it has been proved to be
effective against pests and to be safe for the human health and the environment.
The European Union regulates the sustainable use of pesticides in order to
regulate their risks and impacts on human health and the environment [59]. Directive
2009/128/EC includes key points about national action plans, education for professional consumers and pesticide distributors, public information and awareness,
aerosol regulation, minimisation of use or ban of pesticides, revision of equipment
and integral management of pests with limitation of chemical products.
Pesticides leave residues in the treated products. The maximum residue level
(MRL) is the highest concentration of a pesticide allowed by the regulation. The
European Commission establishes MRLs at concentrations that are safe for the
consumers and as low as possible. The MRLs are available at the European Union
Pesticides database [60] (Tables 3 and 4).
MRLs have been set for about 1,100 compounds in over 300 fresh products and
for the same products after processing in order to take into account dilution or
concentration effects. When MRLs for a pesticide are not stated, the accepted default
value is 0.01 μg g
À1 , which usually corresponds to the limit of detection (LOD)
[59]. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) assesses the safety for every
consumer group – adults, kids, vegetarians, etc. – based on the pesticides’ toxicity
Introduction to Pyrethroid Insecticides: Chemical Structures, Properties, Mode. . .
11