1.1 The Salmon Industry in Chile: An Overview
Due to the growing demand for protein for human consumption, aquaculture is
recognized as an important food source for the global population. Fish farming
accounts for the greatest share of aquaculture production, with Norway and Chile
considered the biggest farmed salmon producers in the world [14].
Salmon farming started on an experimental level in the 1960s and became
an industry in Norway in the 1980s, while in Chile it started in the 1990s. The
emergence of salmon farming since the 1970s has changed the rules of the
sea-farming sector, and Norway and Chile have been the main producers and
exporters since 1997.
Aquaculture in Chile has grown exponentially since the early 1990s. Farmed
salmon is the dominant species in terms of both harvest volume and export values.
Salmon production reached 842,700 tons in 2018, with Atlantic salmon (Salmo
salar) the most harvested species in the salmon industry, accounting for 75.1% of
the total, followed by coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), at 16.3% and 8.6%, respectively [15]. Salmon industry
activity takes place mainly in the southern Patagonia regions of Chile, namely,
Los Lagos and Aysén. Salmon farming is projected to expand into the most austral
areas of the Magallanes Region (Fig. 1), in which only rainbow trout harvests are
proposed. The Chilean National Fishery and Aquaculture Service (SERNAPESCA)
and Undersecretariat for Fisheries and Aquaculture (SUBPESCA) are the agencies
under the Ministry of Economy that establish the basis for regulating aquaculture
activity, but the veterinary medicine market is controlled by the Ministry of
Agriculture, specifically the Agricultural and Livestock Service (SAG), and the
Ministry of Defense through the General Directorate of the Maritime Territory and
Merchant Marine (DIRECTEMAR). The main function of DIRECTEMAR is to
establish aquatic pollution control regulations.
1.2 Sanitary Consequences: The Sea Lice Issue
The exponential growth of aquaculture has been socially and economically impacted
by the increased presence of sea lice on farmed salmon [16–19], which has required
the use of chemicals to control and mitigate adverse consequences for fish. The
action of ectoparasites on farms and wild fish has been widely described [20]. During
parasitic stages in marine environments, sea lice may cause visible skin damage,
hemorrhages, vulnerability to secondary infections, and stress-inducing mortality of
host species.
In Chile, it has been reported that there is a high infestation pressure of the sea lice
C. rogercresseyi [2] on production of the most harvested species, namely, S. salar
and O. mykiss. Meanwhile, the species O. kisutch has been described as less
susceptible to infection by ectoparasites [21–23]. Until 2007, emamectin benzoate
Environmental Risks of Synthetic Pyrethroids Used by the Salmon Industry in. . .
179
Due to the growing demand for protein for human consumption, aquaculture is
recognized as an important food source for the global population. Fish farming
accounts for the greatest share of aquaculture production, with Norway and Chile
considered the biggest farmed salmon producers in the world [14].
Salmon farming started on an experimental level in the 1960s and became
an industry in Norway in the 1980s, while in Chile it started in the 1990s. The
emergence of salmon farming since the 1970s has changed the rules of the
sea-farming sector, and Norway and Chile have been the main producers and
exporters since 1997.
Aquaculture in Chile has grown exponentially since the early 1990s. Farmed
salmon is the dominant species in terms of both harvest volume and export values.
Salmon production reached 842,700 tons in 2018, with Atlantic salmon (Salmo
salar) the most harvested species in the salmon industry, accounting for 75.1% of
the total, followed by coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), at 16.3% and 8.6%, respectively [15]. Salmon industry
activity takes place mainly in the southern Patagonia regions of Chile, namely,
Los Lagos and Aysén. Salmon farming is projected to expand into the most austral
areas of the Magallanes Region (Fig. 1), in which only rainbow trout harvests are
proposed. The Chilean National Fishery and Aquaculture Service (SERNAPESCA)
and Undersecretariat for Fisheries and Aquaculture (SUBPESCA) are the agencies
under the Ministry of Economy that establish the basis for regulating aquaculture
activity, but the veterinary medicine market is controlled by the Ministry of
Agriculture, specifically the Agricultural and Livestock Service (SAG), and the
Ministry of Defense through the General Directorate of the Maritime Territory and
Merchant Marine (DIRECTEMAR). The main function of DIRECTEMAR is to
establish aquatic pollution control regulations.
1.2 Sanitary Consequences: The Sea Lice Issue
The exponential growth of aquaculture has been socially and economically impacted
by the increased presence of sea lice on farmed salmon [16–19], which has required
the use of chemicals to control and mitigate adverse consequences for fish. The
action of ectoparasites on farms and wild fish has been widely described [20]. During
parasitic stages in marine environments, sea lice may cause visible skin damage,
hemorrhages, vulnerability to secondary infections, and stress-inducing mortality of
host species.
In Chile, it has been reported that there is a high infestation pressure of the sea lice
C. rogercresseyi [2] on production of the most harvested species, namely, S. salar
and O. mykiss. Meanwhile, the species O. kisutch has been described as less
susceptible to infection by ectoparasites [21–23]. Until 2007, emamectin benzoate
Environmental Risks of Synthetic Pyrethroids Used by the Salmon Industry in. . .
179